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A HISTORY 



OF 



THE UNITED STATES 



FOR SCHOOLS. 




^ 



111 *} 

£L Si 

2 '^ 



A HISTORY 

OF 

THE UNITED STATES 

FOR SCHOOLS; 

INCLUDING A CONCISE ACCOUNT OF THE DISCOVERY OI 

AMERICA, THE COLONIZATION OF THE LAND, 

AND THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 

BY 

WILLIAM A. MOWRY, A.M., Ph.D. 

n 

AND 

ARTHUR MAY MOWRY, A.M. 
Wit!) iHaps, 31llu0trnti0ns, ^nnlgses, anti 3SiMf0igrapi)ie!3. 




» j^ ) »» 



SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY. 
New York . . . BOSTON . . . Chicago. 



1. 17^ 



STANDARD BOOKS. 

First Steps i n the H istor y of our Country, 

By W. A. MowRY, Ph. D., and A. M. Mowry, A. M. 320 pp. 60 cents. 
Personal narratives of eminent Americans, from Columbus to Edison. 

A History of the United Sides* 

By W. A. Mowry, Ph. D., and A. M. Mowry, A. M. 442 pp. ^i.oo. 
An accurate and judicial history for upper grammar grades and high 
schools. 

First Ste ps in the Histo r y of England* »♦ 

By A. M. Mowry, A. M. 324 pp. 70 cents. 

A connected history, framed around the lives of 29 English leaders, from 
Caradoc to Cecil Rhodes. 

(American In'ventions and Inventors* 

By W. A. MoWRY, Ph. D., and A. M. Mowry, A. M. 298 pp. 65 cents. 
Tracing the progress of American inventions from colonial to modern times. 

Elements of Ci'vil Government* 

By W. A. Mowry, Ph. D. 226 pp. 72 cents. 

Covering the elementary principles of State and National Government. 

Studies in Ci'vil Government* 



'. ,•• B^ W. A. M0W*y, ^hjD. 250 pp. 96 cents. 

'*'. .'*J r^,l"tAl,tj:catm^i;t;(^^e3essential facts of all forms of our government. 



=Hru8RARYOF 
CONGRESS, 

|T>«oCOPttS RECtlVEO 

jUl. 18 1902 

^CnPYRIOHT ENTRY 

-LsS(LxXc. No 



iiJ 



Copyright, i8g6. 
By Silver, Burdett and Company. 

Copyright, igoi. 
By Silver, Burdett and Company, 

Copyright , igo2. 
By Silver, Burdett and Company. 



PREFACE. 



AMERICAN history should be studied in all American schools. 
This is evident not only because it is the history of our own 
country, but because it is the most marvellous history of the world. 
It is, moreover, the most fascinating of all history, especially to 
young minds. Furthermore, it is the most useful history that the 
youth can study. 

History is of value only so far as it relates to the development 
of mankind, the elevation of the race. The history of our country 
unfolds the surest, strongest, and most rapid development to be 
found in all countries and in all ages. 

This book is a school-book, especially designed for class use in 
the schools, both public and private, of the United States. The 
authors, at the outset, laid down certain principles in the prepara- 
tion of its pages. These principles may be stated as follows ; — 

1. Accuracy. — An American humorist has embodied an impor- 
tant truth in the following statement: *' It is better not to know so 
many things than to know so many things that are not so." Our 
histories and biographies have too often been filled with anecdotes 
and incidents which have no more foundation in fact than the 
stories of Baron Munchausen or Sinbad the sailor. From W. L. 
Weems and Peter Parley down to the latest history-writer and 
story-teller, the children have had placed before them the graphic 
outlines of cherry-tree stories and Lincoln anecdotes, until the 
boys and girls can scarcely discriminate as to truthfulness between 
history and Grimm's Fairy Tales. In studying history the learner 



VI PREFACE. 

should be taught that which is true, and the facts should be told 
with due relation and in their proper connection. 

2. Clearness. — The next requisite for a good school history is 
clearness of statement. This implies sufficient detail to make the 
narration lucid and interesting. Dry facts and dates strung together 
in a chronological narrative will not appear to the child's mind con- 
nected or interesting. Enough must be told to convey to his 
imagination a related story. 

3. A Topical Arrangement. — While many teachers say that their 
pupils regard history as dull and uninviting, others glow with 
enthusiasm in relating how charming and fascinating the children 
find the study. Much of this charm comes from a logical sequence 
of the related events. Children everywhere are delighted to find 
natural results flowing from previously considered causes. It is, 
therefore, important that the subjects be treated topically, and 
hence that the chronological order be not followed too rigidly, 

4. Mental Development, — This study, like all others, should be 
so carried on as to stimulate mental growth. It is not sufficient to 
present to the child's mind a great number and variety of facts to 
be memorized, but rather the sequence of fruitful and suggestive 
events should be apprehended and appreciated. 

5. Well-balanced Periods. — Some books are very full upon the 
Colonial period, followed by a too brief account of the War of the 
Revolution ; others pass lightly over the development of the coun- 
try during the first half of this century, only to dwell with unneces- 
sary detail upon the battles of the Mexican and Civil Wars. This 
book has 115 pages of the Colonial period, — that is, down to 1763 ; 
'j^ pages relating to the Revolutionary period ; 92 pages showing 
the development of the young republic between 178 1 and i860; 50 
pages upon the War of the Rebellion ; and 6"] pages concerning the 
history since 1865. 



PREFACE. Vll 

6. How to teach History. — As preliminary to the "Suggestions 
to Teachers " which follow this preface, it may be proper to sug- 
gest that the first and most important thing' to be accomplished by 
teaching our history in the schools, is to create and develop a love 
for history in the minds of the children. Hence mere memorizing 
from the pages of the book to be recited (and then forgotten) is 
entirely out of place. The story must be made interestrng, and to 
do this much collateral reading from narratives of greater detail, 
especially upon the most important topics and branches of the 
subject, will be found absolutely essential. 

Here it should be observed that it is by 7io means necessary that 
every school should study all the subject-matter of this book. Many 
things may be gone over cursorily or even omitted altogether. 
The character of the school and of the class, and the amount of 
time at the teacher's disposal, will govern this matter. 

In the making of this book the authors have had many advan- 
tages. It is the result of a lifetime of critical study on the part of 
one author, and of rare opportunities at Harvard University during 
three years of post-graduate study, preceded by an experience of 
ten years' teaching in secondary schools, on the part of the other. 

The authors desire to call special attention to the unusually 
attractive typography and general mechanical execution of the 
book. The cuts which so finely embellish the work have been 
chosen with care, and In most cases engraved expressly for it. The 
maps, also, both colored and uncolored, have been prepared with 
great pains and by the best artists. Every small map printed 
with the text has been engraved from drawings by the authors, with 
special care to illustrate the text, and make the geography an im- 
portant aid in understanding the historical sequence of events. 
Teachers and pupils will find that the full-page colored maps are 
an important aid to a clear and complete knowledge of the history. 
• The manuscript has been read and carefully examined by half 
a dozen experts, — teachers, literary men, and historians. The 
authors are under special obligations to Gen. H. B. Carring- 
ton, LL. D-, author of " Battles of the American Revolution," for 



Vlll PREFACE. 

a critical examination and many valuable suggestions; to Mr. M, 
T. Pritchard, Master of the Everett School, Boston ; and Col. Charles 
W. Johnson, who have read the work in manuscript. 

The book is commended to the teachers of America with the 
hope that they will find it reliable, interesting, and useful. 

WILLIAM A. MOWRY, 

Hyde Park^ Mass, 

ARTHUR MAY MOWRY, 
Ctunbridge^ Mass, 



TABLE OF CONTENTS, 



5^att I. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 

SECTION L- DISCOVERY, EXPLORATION, AND ATTEMPTED 

SETTLEMENT. 



Chapter 
I. 



Pagh 



Discovery of the New World 3 

II. Along the Coast ^° 

III. Canada and Carolana '3 

IV. Gilbert and Raleigh ^7 

Chronology ^ 

Section IL — PERMANENT SETTLEMENTS. 

V. Organized Movements 25 

VI. Virginia 

VII. Plymouth ^^ 

VIII. Massachusetts Bay 4° 

IX. New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island ... 44 

X. New York ^^ 

XL Maryland 

XI I. Delaware and New Jersey 54 

XIII. The Carolinas and Georgia ^^ 

XIV. Pennsylvania 

Chronology 

Section III. -COLONIAL WARS. 

XV. Indian Characteristics 5 

XVI. Early Conflicts 

XVI I. Philip of Pokanoket ^^ 

XVIII. New France ^^ 

XIX. France versus England * * ' ,* ' 

XX. King William's, Queen Anne's, and King Georges 

Wars ^ ^^ 

XXI. The French and Indian War 

XXIL Treaty of 1763 ' ^ 

Chronology ^ 

ix 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
Section IV. — COLONIAL LIFE. 

Chapter Page 

XXIII. The Settlers 93 

XXIV. Resources 98 

XXV. Education loi 

XXVI. Religion 103 

XXVII. Government 107 

XXVIII. Life no 

Chi'onology 1 14 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 

Section V. — CONTROVERSY WITH ENGLAND. 

XXIX. Commerce of the Colonies 117 

XXX. Taxation 119 

XXXI. The Boston Massacre 122 

XXXII. The Boston Tea Party 124 

XXXIII. England retaliates 126 

Chronology 1 29 

Section VI. — RESISTANCE LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE. 

XXXIV. The First Continental Congress 131 

XXXV. The First Armed Resistance 134 

XXXVI. Lexington and Concord 135 

XXXVII. Ticonderoga and Bunker Hill 138 

XXXVIII. The Siege of Boston 142 

XXXIX. First Steps toward Independence i4S 

XL. The Birth of the Nation i47 

Chronology I49 

Skction VIL — STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 

XLI. Loss of New York City 151 

XLII. Defence of New Jersey i54 

XLIII. Brandywine and Germantown 158 

XLIV. Burgoyne*s Expedition 160 

XLV. Valley Forge and Monmouth 166 

XLVI. Stony Point and Paul Jones 171 

XLVIL War in the South \1S 

XLVI 1 1. Arnold's Treason 180 

XLIX. The Last Campaigns 184 

L. The Great Treaty of 1783 188 

Chronology '9° 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



XI 



Section VIII. — THE NEW NATION. 

Chapter Page 

LI. Articles of Confederation 193 

LI I. The Federal Convention 195 

LI 1 1. The Constitution of the United States 197 



^att III. 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



LIV. 

LV. 

LVI. 

LVII. 

LVIII. 

LIX. 

LX. 



LXI. 

LXII. 

LXIII. 

LXIV. 

LXV. 

LXVI. 

LXV II. 

LXVIII. 

LXIX. 



LXX. 

LXXI. 

LXXIL 
LXXIII. 
LXXIV. 

LXXV. 
LXXVI. 



Section IX. —THE NATION ESTABLISHED. 

The Nation's Population and Industries 201 

Washington's Administrations 205 

The Federalists and France 212 

The Republicans and England 216 

The War of 181 2 221 

An Era of Good Feeling 229 

The United States of 1825 233 

CJironology 238 

Section X. — THE NATION THREATENED. 

John Ouincy Adams 241 

Nullification and the United States Bank. ... 243 

Financial Panics and the Sub-Treasury 250 

Texas and Oregon 251 

War with Mexico 256 

The Compromise of 1850 263 

The Growth of the Slavery Agitation 267 

Kansas and Nebraska 272 

Secession 276 

Chronology 281 

Section XL — THE NATION ASSURED. 

The North and the South 285 

The Fall of Sumter 288 

The War in the West 295 

The War in the East 300 

The Darkest Hour and the Dawn 315 

Grant and Lee. — Sherman and Johnston .... 320 

The End of the War . 327 

Chronology 332 



xu 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Section XII. — THE NATION AT PEACE. 

Chapter Page 

LXXVII. Reconstruction 335 

LXXVIII. Grant's Administrations 34 1 

LXXIX. Progress and Reform 34^ 

LXXX. National and International Questions 35^ 

Chronology 3^4 

Section XIII. — NATIONAL EXPANSION. 

LXXXI. The War with Spain . 367 

LXXXII. Letters and Art 381 

LXXXIII. The Nation of To-Day 388 

LXXXIV. Past, Present, and Future 395 

Chronology 400 

APPENDIXES, 

A. The Mayflower Compact 401 

B. The Declaration of Independence 401 

C. The Constitution of the United States of America . . , 406 

D. Extracts from Washington's Farewell Address 422 

E. Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address 425 

F. Lincoln's Address at Gettysburg 426 

G. Supplementary Reading for Young People 428 

H. Table of the Presidents 435 

I. Table of the States and Territories 436 

INDEX 438 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page 
Signing the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence .... Frontispiece 

Old Stone Mill at Newport, R. I. . 7 

Queen Isabella 7 

Christopher Columbus .... 8 

First Sight of Land 11 

Old Gateway at St. Augustine . . 16 

Sir Walter Raleigh 19 

Ruins of the Settlement at James- 
town, Va 28 

Captain John Smith 30 

Pocahontas 31 

Pocahontas saves the Life of Cap- 
tain John Smith 32 

The "Mayflower" 36 

Governor Winthrop 41 

Salem First Church 42 

Roger Williams's Monument . . 47 

Hudson on the River ..... 50 

Peter Stuyvesant 51 

Lord Baltimore 53 

Oglethorpe 59 

William Penn . 60 

Indian Method of Boiling , . , dd 

Indian Method of Broiling , . , dd 

Indian Shell Axe 68 

Indian War Club 69 

Indian Snow Shoes 70 

The Attack on Brookfield ... 72 

King Philip 73 

An Old House at Deerfield ... 79 

Quebec 87 

A New England Colonial House . 95 

An Old Dutch House .... 96 

A Southern Mansion ..... 98 

A Flax- Wheel 100 



Page 

The Old South Church, Boston . 102 

Puritans going to Church . . . 104 

The " Charter Oak " 109 

Puritan Youth and Maiden . . no 

Franklin's Clock 112 

A Colonial Plough 113 

Patrick Henry 120 

Samuel Adams 122 

Faneuil Hall, "The Cradle of 

Liberty" 124 

George III 127 

John Hancock 133 

The Battle of Bunker Hill ... 140 

The Washington Elm .... 143 

The Liberty Bell 148 

General Burgoyne 162 

Benjamin Franklin 165 

Monument at Freehold, N. J. . . 169 

John Paul Jones 173 

Lord Cornwallis 178 

General Nathaniel Greene . . . 185 

Lafayette 186 

Chair and Table used by Wash- 
ington 196 

Eli Whitney 202 

The Cotton-Gin 203 

George Washington 204 

Daniel Boone 208 

Alexander Hamilton 210 

John Jay 211 

John Adams 212 

Chief Justice John Marshall . . 213 

Mount Vernon 215 

Thomas Jefferson 216 

Stephen Decatur 218 

Aaron Burr 220 



XIU 



XIV 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page 

James Madison 222 

The "Constitution" and " Guer- 

ri^re " 224 

Oliver H. Perry 225 

James Monroe 230 

Robert Fulton 234 

The ^* Clermont " 235 

A Western Emigrant Train . . 236 

John Quincy Adams 241 

Andrew Jackson 244 

John C. Calhoun 246 

Henry Clay 248 

An Early Railroad Train . . . 249 

Daniel Webster 252 

Samuel Houston 253 

Samuel F. B. Morse 254 

General Winfield Scott .... 258 

The Mormon Temple .... 260 

The City of Mexico 261 

Washing out Gold 264 

William H. Seward 265 

William Lloyd Garrison .... 270 

Harriet Beecher Stowe .... 271 

Stephen A. Douglas 273 

Charles Sumner 274 

Harper's Ferry ....... 279 

Jefferson Davis 280 

Abraham Lincoln 288 

The Attack on Fort Sumter . . 290 

General J. E. Johnston .... 293 

General G. B. McClellan ... 294 

General A. S. Johnston .... 296 

Admiral David G. Farragut . . 298 

John Ericsson 301 

The "Monitor" and the " Merri- 

mac" 302 

General R. E. Lee 307 

General A. E. Burnside .... 309 

General " Stonewall " Jackson . 310 

Henry Ward Beecher .... 313 



General G. B. Meade 
General G. H. Thomas 
General U. S. Grant , 
General P. H. Sheridan 
General W. T. Sherman 
Farragut at Mobile Bay 
Salmon P. Chase . . 
Andrew Johnson . . 
Laying an Atlantic Cable 
Custer's Last Fight 
Memorial Hall . . 
Horace Greeley . . 
Rutherford Burchard Hay 
James Abram Garfield 
James Gillespie Blaine 
Benjamin Harrison 
Grover Cleveland . . 
William McKinley . . 
The U. S. Battleship " Maine 
George Dewey . . . 
Richmond P. Hobson 
Winning the Crest of 

Hill 

John Hay .... 
Theodore Roosevelt . 
Washington Irving 
James Fenimore Cooper 
Nathaniel Hawthorne 
William Cullen Bryant 
Henry Wads worth Longfellow 
John Greenleaf Whittier 
Edgar Allan Poe . . 
Oliver Wendell Holmes 
James Russell Lowell . 
Ralph Waldo Emerson 
George Bancroft . . 
William H. Prescott . 
Louis Agassiz . . . 
Thomas A. Edison 



San J 



COLORED MAPS. 



Page 

King James's Patent of 1606 facing 24 

Charters of [609 and 1620 . " 26 

European Claims in 1640 . " 64 

European Claims in 1755 . " 80 

The Treaty of 1763 ... " 88 

The English Colonies in 1763 " 106 

The Original Thirteen States " 144 

The Treaty of 1783 ... "188 

The United States in 1790 . " 200 
The Louisiana Purchase in 1803 " 216 



The United States in 1830 , 
The United States in 1846 .' 
The Mexican Treaty (1848) 
The United States (Western 

Half) in 1854 .... 
The Area of vSecession in 

1861 

The United States (Western 

Half) in 1896 .... 



' Pagr 

facmg 242 

" 256 

" 260 



272 



288 



389 



UNCOLORED MAPS. 



Page 
The World as known at the time 

of Columbus 4 

Route of Columbus . . . , . 8 

Roanoke Island 20 

Early Discoveries, Explorations, 

and Settlements 22 

Chesapeake Bay 29 

England and Holland .... 38 

New England 48 

Acadia 83 

Western Pennsylvania .... 84 

Quebec 86 

Boston and Vicinity 137 

Boston 139 

From New York to Trenton . . 152 

From Elkton to Trenton ... 158 



^ Pagb 
Hudson River and Lake Cham- 
plain 161 

Southern States 175 

Yorktown 187 

Niagara River 223 

Washington and Baltimore . . 226 

Rio Grande 257 

Vera Cruz to Mexico .... 259 

Virginia and Maryland .... 292 

Kentucky and Tennessee . . » 297 

Gulf States 300 

The Peninsula 305 

Gettysburg 316 

Vicksburg and Vicinity . . . . 317 

Chattanooga and Vicinity . . , 318 

Southern Coast States .... 325 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



ALL teachers realize that, as there is no " royal road to learning," so 
there is no one *' only correct " method of teaching. This fact is 
particularly true in the teaching of history. No method can be laid down 
which will prove to be the best for all teachers to pursue, in carrying a 
class through a course of American History. Still, it is true that different 
text-books in United States History have their peculiarities, and that each 
is particularly adapted to a certain method, and will prove a more valuable 
aid to the teacher if used in its own way. The brief suggestions for the 
use of this book are presented with this idea in mind. 

First, it is necessary to remember that the chief end of class-room work 
in teaching history is to instil in the pupil a true and lasting interest in 
history, — in the experiences of his ancestors, their achievements, and their 
mistakes. An end hardly less important to be borne in mind in teaching 
the history of our own country is the making of good citizens, the only 
hope of a republic. Other results that may be obtained from the pursuit 
of this branch of school-work are secondary, and should not be allowed 
to take precedence over these more important ends. 

In accomplishing these results, the text-book should be considered 
merely as an outline. It should always be noted that the book is small 
and can give but a few of the leading facts in history; that these must 
be briefly stated; and that emphasis is laid upon certain events, while 
others may be deemed more important by other students. It is necessary 
to supplement the text-book by material obtained from other sources. 
What these sources and this material may be depends in great measure 
upon the local conditions, — the school library ; the city library ; museums 
of history and of art ; and more particularly upon the ability of the teacher. 

The simplest resource by which a text-book outline may be filled out 
is by the simultaneous use of other text-books. These may be placed in 
the hands of the individual pupils in various ways. Each pupil may have 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. XVU 

more than one text-book; or he may have but one, while a supply of 
other books may He upon a table or shelf for consultation. 

This use of different text-books ought, however, to be supplemented 
by outside reading. No list of such reading can be prepared which will 
be more than provisional. The teacher should, if possible, go to the 
"original sources" for the material which will make him properly prepared 
to guide a class. The opportunity to do this is so limited, however, that 
it has been deemed best to present in this book only a list of the 
"secondary literature" with which every teacher ought to be familiar. 
This list, which follows these " Suggestions to Teachers," is quite full, but 
by no means exhaustive, and teachers are advised to consult more com- 
plete bibliographies and methods of teaching history, such as Adams* 
" Manual of Historical Literature," Hall's " Methods of Teaching History," 
Gordy and Twitchell's " Pathfinder of American History," Hinsdale's " How 
to teach History," and the " Report of the Committee of Ten." 

Another list of books, as a rule more suitable for the pupils' reading, 
is given in the Appendix. The teacher will often find, however, that there 
are specific portions of the standard works, in the first list, and sometimes 
whole volumes even, which they can recommend to the classes to read, 
or at least to certain members, especially for work on particular topics. 
In the pupils' list will be found historical stories, as well as more closely 
historical works, which, if properly used, will bend their minds in the right 
direction. They will give local coloring and flavor to an epoch, but the 
pupil will need to be cautioned against too complete trust in what are 
recorded as facts in these stories. 

These lists are necessarily too brief to contain a mention of the num- 
erous magazine articles on various historical subjects that are often of more 
value to the student of history than more pretentious volumes. This is 
especially true at the present day, when the magazines are vying with 
each other in presenting interesting and finely illustrated accounts of 
historical persons and events. Current events should not be forgotten in 
a course of American History, and the magazines, especially the " Review 
of Reviews," "Current Events," "Current History," " Public Opinion," and 
the like, are invaluable for this purpose. 

Not merely books and magazines, but pictures, articles of historic 
interest, maps, etc., must be drawn upon in the effort to interest the pupil 
in history as history. Debates, oral or written, on questions closely con- 
nected with our history, are useful aids, besides furnishing drill in compo- 
sition and elocution. Essays written on historical subjects relieve teacher 

b 



XVIU SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

and pupil from much of the monotony of written work. These composi- 
tions may be illustrated by drawings or original maps, and thus history 
may be combined with English, drawing, geography, and writing. 

Turning from this work, which is for the most part carried on outside 
of the class, a few suggestions may be given as to the conduct of the 
recitation. The two methods used in teaching history are the *' Topical" 
and "Question and Answer" methods. Perhaps a logical combination of 
the two would be more scientific. This text-book has been arranged with 
the idea of topics and groups of topics continually in mind. The logical 
connection of events has been considered of more importance than a true 
and consistent chronological order. Yet it has not been forgotten that 
chronology is helpful in fixing history in mind. Dates are often aids to 
an understanding as well as a remembrance of historical facts. The number 
of dates which a pupil should memorize, however, should be kept as 
limited as possible, and the tables of chronology should be used mainly 
for reference. 

Another important aid is the thorough use of geography. It will be 
hardly possible to carry this means of history teaching too far. The maps 
in this book are as complete and as numerous as such a work would 
warrant. The colored maps give a complete account, in themselves, of 
the growth of the country territorially. The outline maps present to the 
pupil just that small portion of the geography which is necessary for an 
understanding of the events under consideration. 

But these maps should be supplemented by other geographical work. 
MacCoun's " Historical Charts of the United States," 38 by 40 inches in 
size, colored to show territorial divisions, present clearly to the eye the 
several parts of the original territory and all portions added by purchase or 
otherwise. MacCoun's " Historical Geography of the United States," is an 
inexpensive handbook, accompanying the charts These will be found 
helpful in any schoolroom. Atlases should be used in connection with all 
historical reading. More important is the constant use of outline maps. 
These should be placed in the hands of each pupil at the beginning of the 
course, and every day should find some additional place or boundary, or 
exploration recorded. Larger outline maps for wall use are now found 
in the market, and will supplement the individual maps. The blackboard 
should be brought into use also. Artistic or complete maps are not needed, 
but merely brief outlines to be filled in as the pupils recite. Perhaps the 
most effective use of the blackboard maps is in tracing the course of indi- 
vidual campaigns in any of the wars with which American history has to deal. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. XIX 

For the recitation, the Blackboard Analysis which precedes each of 
the twelve sections might be placed on the board, when the section is 
begun, and retained until the next section is reached. A more complete 
analysis might be commenced, to be added to day by day. A pupil is 
called upon to relate a topic as it stands in the mind of such pupil. No 
interruption should be made until the recitation is finished. Then real 
misstatements of facts should be corrected by the other pupils ; additional 
incidents may be presented ; other points of view may be noted. Then 
the teacher should carry the leading points home to the minds of the pupils 
by questions carefully chosen. Questions which may be answered by 
" Yes " or " No " should be avoided. Individual and blackboard maps 
might then be brought into requisition, and all important places or move- 
ments mentioned in the lesson might be recorded. The system of cross 
references, though but an outline, and needing explanation by the teacher, 
should not be forgotten. Interest may be stimulated by reading poems 
and orations in the class, and by frequent exercises upon patriotic days. 

These suggestions are, however, merely hints. The true teacher will 
realize that the text-book is but the basis upon which, by skilfully directed 
reading and various devices, a love for and a general knowledge of real 
history is to be developed. 

W. A. M. 

A; M. M. 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 



GENERAL ACCOUNTS. 

THE latest and most valuable of the general histories of the United 
States is entitled " The Narrative and Critical History of America " 
(8 vols.), edited by Justin Winsor. It is not a continuous history, as the 
chapters are distinct historical essays written by various authors, each a 
specialist in his department. The first volume is devoted to America be- 
fore the time of Columbus, the second to Spanish explorations and settle- 
ments, the third to English, the fourth to French, Portuguese, Dutch, and 
Swedish, the fifth to the French and English in North America, the sixth 
and seventh to the Revolution and later history of the United States, and 
the last to the later history of British, Spanish, and Portuguese America. 

Bancroft's " History of the United States " (6 vols.) is the result of 
more tHan fifty years of continuous research, and is a full and accurate 
account. The first two volumes are devoted to colonial history, while the 
remaining four cover the period from 1763 to 1789. 

Hildreth's " History of the United States " (6 vols.) is also full, quite 
accurate and impartial. The first two volumes bring the narrative to 1773, 
the third takes up the Revolution, while the remaining three continue the 
history to the year 1820. 

Bryant and Gay's " Popular History of the United States " (4 vols.) is 
the most popular illustrated history. A good short account is Doyle's 
" History of the United States," written by an Englishman. Each of the 
various school histories of the United States furnishes some material not 
found in any one of the others. 

Von Hoist's " Constitutional and Political History of the United States " 
(7 vols.) presents an excellent governmental history from 1750 to i860. 
Mr. Von Hoist is a German, and his work is specially valuable as being 
written by one who could be strictly impartial. The five volumes of Schou- 
ler's «*' History of the United States of America under the Constitution " 
present the only recent complete history from 1781 to 186 1. McMaster's 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION. XXI 

" History of the People of the United States from the Revolution to the 
Civil War" is not yet completed (1896), but the four volumes published 
present the social history very fully up to 1820. 

Two recent brief summaries of the governmental history are Sterne's 
" Constitutional History and Political Development of the United States " 
and Landon's "Constitutional History and Government of the United 
States." Johnston's " History of American Politics " and Stanwood's '' His- 
tory of Presidential Elections " are useful brief volumes. 

The three volumes of the " Epochs of American History " furnish 
an admirable short course in United States history. They are Thwaites' 
"The Colonies," Hart's " Formation of the Union," and Wilson's '* Division 
and Reunion." Another excellent set is the " American History Series," 
of which Fisher's " Colonial Era," Sloane's " French War and the Revolu- 
tion," and Walker's "The Making of the Nation" have been issued 
(1896). Another excellent single volume, covering the period from 1765 
to 1865, is Channing's "The United States of America." Andrews' "His- 
tory of the United States" (2 vols.) is very readable. 

A large amount of valuable historical information is found in such works 
as Lalor's "Cyclopedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and the 
Political History of the United States " (3 vols.) ; Ben. Perley Poore's 
" The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and other Organic 
Laws of the United States" (2 vols.) ; Jameson's "Dictionary of United 
States History ; " Preston's " Documents Illustrative of American History ; " 
Tyler's "History of American Literature" (2 vols.); the "Old South 
Tracts ; " and the " American History Leaflets." 

The "American Statesmen Series," the "American Commonwealth 
Series," the " American Men-of-Letters Series," the " Makers of America 
Series," and the " Historic Towns Series," are collections of biography and 
local history that furnish interesting and fairly accurate reading. 



|Bart I. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 

SECTION I. 

DISCOVERY, EXPLORATION, AND ATTEMPTED SETTLEMENT. 

For accounts of the discovery of America previous to the time of Colum- 
bus, the student should see Winsor's " Narrative and Critical History," 



XXll SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 

vole i. ; Bryant and Gay's '* Popular History/' vol. i., chaps, i. and ii. ; 
Fiske's '' Discovery of America," vol. i. ; and De Costa's " Pre-Columbian 
Discovery of America by the Northmen." 

The story of Columbus is given in Irving's " Life of Columbus " (3 
vols.) ; Winsor's *' Columbus " (2 vols.) ; Prescott's " Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella ; " Fiske's "Discovery of America; " and Kettell's "Personal Narra- 
tive of the First Voyage of Columbus to America." 

General accounts of the discovery, exploration, and setdement of 
America, between 1492 and 1602, are given in Doyle's "English Colonies 
in America," vol. i., pp. 22-74; and in the complete histories of Winsor, 
Bancroft, Hildreth, and Bryant and Gay. 

Special accounts may be found in Irving's " Conquest of Florida ; " 
Help's " Spanish Conquest of America ; " Biddle's " Sebastian Cabot ; " 
Hawks' " History of North Carolina ; " Baird's " Huguenot Emigration to 
America;" Parkman's "Pioneers of France in the New World;" and 
Hakluyt's " Collection of Early Voyages." 



SECTION 11. 
PERMANENT SETTLEMENTS. 

In the third volume of Winsor's " Narrative and Critical History," and 
in the first volumes of Bancroft and Hildreth will be found full accounts of 
the Virginia Company. 

The settlement of Virginia is given in Doyle's " Virginia," Cooke's 
"Virginia," and Brown's "Genesis of the United States." Eggleston's 
" Pocahontas " popularly portrays the Indian princess, and John Smith's 
" Generall Historic of Virginia," written in 1624, furnishes contemporary 
matter. 

The best history of the Eastern colonies is Palfrey's " Compendious His- 
tory of New England " (4 vols.) The first volume is devoted to the settle- 
ment. Hubbard's " History of New England " furnishes early material. 
Fiske's " Beginnings of New England " is more recent and more thorough 
than the other works. 

Morton's " New England Memorial " and " Young's " Chronicles of the 
Pilgrim Fathers " comprise articles on Plymouth history written by the 
first settlers. Goodwin's " Pilgrim Republic " and Baylies' " History of 
New Plymouth " (2 vols.) may be consulted with profit. 

Barry's " History of Massachusetts " (3 vols.) is the most complete his- 
tory of the " Old Bay State," while Ellis' " Puritan Age and Rule in the 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION. XXUl 

Colony of Massachusetts Bay " is also valuable. Other works that may be 
consulted with profit are Adams' " Emancipation of Massachusetts," Win- 
sor's "Memorial History of Boston" (4 vols.), Lodge's "Boston," in the 
" Historic Towns Series," and Twichell's "John Winthrop," in " Makers of 
America Series." 

Belknap's " New Hampshire," Williamson's " Maine," and Heaton's 
" Vermont " are good histories of those States. 

For Connecticut the reader should examine the State history by Trum- 
bull or Johnston, Walker's " Thomas Hooker," in " Makers of America 
Series," and Levermore's "Republic of New Haven." 

The best history of Rhode Island is that of Arnold (2 vols.), while 
Greene's " Short History of Rhode Island " is readable. Of the lives of 
Roger Williams that by Knowles is recommended. 

For the colony of New York the most elaborate and carefully written is 
the "History by Brodhead " (2 vols.), while Roberts' "History of New 
York" (2 vols.), in the " Commonwealth Series" is valuable. Mrs. Lamb's 
"History of New York City" is very complete, and Roosevelt's "New 
York," in the " Historic Towns Series," is a popular book. 

Browne's " Maryland " and " Lives of George and Cecilius Calvert " fur- 
nish full and interesting accounts of the settlement of Maryland. Raum's 
" New Jersey " and Scharf s " Delaware " are the most available histories of 
those settlements. 

For the more southern colonies we have Moore's " History of North 
Carolina " (2 vols.), Ramsay's and Rivers' "South Carolina," and Hewatt's 
" History of the Rise and Progress of the Colonies of South Carolina and 
Georgia." Wright's "Memoirs of Oglethorpe" is a good account of the 
founder of the colony of Georgia. 

Of the " Keystone " State, Sewel's " History of the Quakers," Janney's 
" Life of Penn," and the histories of Egle, Cornell, and Proud give full 
accounts. 

General accounts of the settlements are given in Winsor, vols, iii., iv., and 
v., Bancroft, vols. i. and ii., Hildreth, vols. i. and ii., and Bryant and Gay, 
vols, i., ii., and iii. ; in Frothingham's "Rise 'of the Republic; " in Doyle's 
"English Colonies" (3 vols.) ; in Thwaites' "The Colonies;" in Fisher's 
" Colonial Era ; " in Chalmers' " Annals of the United Colonies to 1763 ; " 
and in Grahame's " History of the United States of North America, from 
the Planting of the British Colonies until their Assumption of Indepen- 
dence " (2 vols.) 



XXIV SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 

SECTION III. 
COLONIAL WARS. 

Accounts of the Red Indians of America are found in Bancroft, vol. ii., 
chaps, v.-viii. ; in Hildreth, vol. i., chap. ii. ; in Higginson's '' Larger History 
of the United States," chap. i. ; in Catlin's " North American Indians ; " 
in Drake's " Aboriginal Races of North America ; " and in Ellis' " Red 
Man and White Man in America." 

In Roosevelt's *' Winning of the West," vol. i., is found a description of 
Southern Indians ; in Stone's " Life of Brant," and " Life of Red Jacket," of 
the Iroquois ; and in H. H. Bancroft's " Native Races of the Pacific Coast," 
of that section of the country. Carrington's " Census Report upon the Six 
Nations, 1890," is also valuable. 

Mason's '* History of the Pequot War " is to be found in vol. iii. of the 
third series of the Massachusetts Historical Society's Collections. The best 
account of King Philip's War is given in Church's "Entertaining Passages 
relating to Philip's War." 

The seven volumes of Parkman's " France and England in North 
America " make an almost perfect history of New France and its contests 
with the English. The separate titles are " Pioneers of France in the New 
World," " Jesuits in North America," " La Salle and the Discovery of the 
Great West," " Old Regime in Canada," " Count Frontenac and New 
France under Louis XIV.," " Montcalm and Wolfe," and " Conspiracy of 
Pontiac." 

Other pictures of the French in America are furnished in Hinsdale's 
" Old Northwest " and Machar and Marquis' " Stories of New France.'* 

All of the general histories give accounts of the French and Indian wars, 
and besides these and Parkman's series, Warburton's " Conquest of Canada " 
and Mante's " History of the Late War " are valuable. Burinot's *' Cape 
Breton and its Memorial " is a recent volume, giving a full account of the 
two English captures of Louisburg. 

SECTION IV. 

COLONIAL LIFE. 

The most valuable, available book furnishing accounts of colonial life 
is Lodge's *' Short History of the English Colonies in America." A 
chapter is devoted to the population, occupations, education, religion, 
government, and social condition in each colony or group of colonies. 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION. XXV 

On colonial life in the Southern and New England colonies see Doyle's 
"The English in America." In Eggleston's " History of the United States 
and its People " will be found matter concerning life in the colonies. 
Coffin's " Old Times in the Colonies " presents an interesting series of 
pictures. 

New England's peculiarities are set out in Ellis* " Puritan Age and 
Rule in Massachusetts Bay," in Dexter's " Congregationalism," in Lodge's 
" Boston," in Lowell's *' New England Two Hundred Years Ago " (" Among 
my Books"), in Bacon's "Sabbath in New Haven," in Trumbull's "True 
Blue Laws," in Sewall's " Diary," and in VVeeden's " Economic and Social 
History of New England." 

Stone's " New York City " furnishes an account of the early Dutch 
settlement ; Scharfs " History of Delaware " sets forth society in that 
colony ; Mellick's " Story of an Old New Jersey Farm " illustrates life in 
the middle colonies ; and Burden's " History of the Friends in America " 
contains an account of the Quakers in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. 

All the Southern colonies are illustrated in Meade's " Old Churches of 
Virginia," Hopkins' "Youth of the Old Dominion," and Cooke's "Stones 
of the Old Dominion." 

Whitmore's " Andros' Tracts " give an account of the political condition 
of the colonies; Upham's "Witchcraft" is authority in regard to that 
terrible delusion ; and Boone's " Education in the United States " is the 
standard work on that subject. 



part TI. 

FORMATION OF THE NATION. 

SECTION V. 

CONTROVERSY WITH ENGLAND. 

"The Revolution Impending," in Winsor's "Narrative and Critical 
History," vol. vi., is one of the best accounts of the years immediately pre- 
ceding the war. Hosmer's " Life of Samuel Adams " and Henry's " Life 
of Patrick Henry " are excellent biographies of those two leaders of the 
patriots. Many of the speeches that hastened the beginning of the struggle 
are given in Johnston's " American Orations " and in Magoon's " Orators 
of the Revolution." 



XXVI SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 

Among the many excellent works on the War of the Revolution should 
be mentioned the narrative histories : Gordon's "American War" (3 vols.), 
and Ludlow's ''War of American Independence;" the extended history, 
by Fiske, entitled "The American Revolution" (2 vols.) ; Greene's " His- 
torical View of the Revolution," Otis' Botta's " History of the American 
Revolution," which treats the subject philosophically from the standpoint 
of an Italian; and Carrington's "Battles of the American Revolution," 
which is introduced by a military analysis of the causes of the Revolution. 

SECTION VI. 

RESISTANCE LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE. 

Besides the works of Ludlow, Greene, Fiske, Otis' Botta, Gordon, 
Hosmer, Henry, and Carrington, which have just been described, special 
mention should be made of volumes vi. and vii. of Winsor's " Narrative and 
Critical History." In volume vii., under the head of " Independence " is 
given the best description of the steps that led up to the Declaration. 

Storrs' "Fathers of the Declaration" and Goodrich's "Lives of the 
Signers of the Declaration " present accounts of the characters of the 
statesmen that gave us our independence. Sparks' " Life and Letters of 
George Washington " is invaluable to the student of the Revolution. In 
Frothingham's " Siege of Boston " is a full account of that part of the 
war. One of the most interesting stories of the war for children is Coffin's 
"Boys of '76." 

SECTION VIL" 
STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 

The general histories of the war mentioned above — namely, those of 
Ludlow, Fiske, Greene, Otis' Botta, Gordon, and Carrington — are still the 
most valuable. Sparks' " Washington " is here also most important. 

Among the histories of single campaigns are Drake's " Burgoyne Inva- 
sion of 1777," Draper's "King's Mountain and its Heroes," Lee's "Me- 
moirs of War in the Southern Department," and Johnston's " Yorktown 
Campaign." 

Other special histories are Hale's " Franklin in France," Balch's "The 
French in America," Moore's "Treason of Lee," Roosevelt's "Winning 
of the West," Gilmore's " Rear Guard of the Revolution," and Arnold's 
" Life of Benedict Arnold." The best account of the treaty of peace is 
that of Jay, in the seventh volume of Winsor's " Narrative and Critical 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION. XXvii 

M 'Story." A better understanding of the difficulties of making a treaty 
may be obtained by reading Sabine's "Loyalists of the Revolution," and 
tlinsdale's "Old Northwest." 

SECTION VIII. 

THE NEW NATION. 

The three best sources of information on this period are Fiske's " Criti- 
cal Period of American History," Bancroft, vol. vi., and vol. vii. of Winsor's 
^ Narrative and Critical History." Bryce's " American Commonwealth " 
and Von Hoist's " History of the United States," vol. i., should also be 
consulted. 

The student of the Constitution should consult Story's " Commentaries 
on the Constitution," the works of Hamilton, Madison, and Washington, 
Towle's " Analysis of the Constitution," and Elhott's " Debates," including 
particularly "The Federalist." 

Some one of the many excellent works on Civil Government for the 
schools should be used in connection with this section. Among the best 
of these are Andrews' " Manual of the Constitution," Dawes' " How we 
are Governed," Fiske's " Civil Government in the United States," Giffin's 
" Civics for Young Americana!," Macy's " Our Government," Mowry's 
" Elements of Civil Governmeiit," Nordhoff's " Politics for Young Ameri- 
cans," Peterman's " Elements of Civil Government," and Thorpe's " The 
Government of the People of the United States." 



part III. 

DEVELOPMKNT OF THE NATION. 

SECTION IX. 

THE NATION ESTABLISHED. 

One of the best methods to pursue, in studying the first period of the 
history of the United States under the Constitution, is to use freely the 
biographies of the leading statesmen of the time. No better set can be 
found than the " American Statesmen Series," especially Lodge's " Wash- 
ington " and "Hamilton," Morse's " Jefferson " and "John Adams," Gil- 
man's " Monroe," and Gay's " Madison." More complete biographies are 
those of Washington, by Sparks, by Irving, and by Marshall ; of John 



xxviii SOURCES of information. 

Adams, by C. F. Adams ; of Jefferson, by Tucker and by Randall ; and of 
Hamilton, by Sumner. 

The writings and correspondence of the great statesmen of this period 
have been published, furnishing contemporary history that is invaluable. 
The most noted of these are the works of Washington, John Adams, Jeffer- 
son, Madison, Hamilton, and Gallatin. " The History of the United States 
of America," by Henry Adams, in 9 vols., is a very complete and excellent 
account of the period from 1801 to 1817. 

Lossing's *' Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812," Taussig's "Tariff 
History of the United States," Bishop's " History of American Manufac- 
tures," and Benton's "Thirty Years' View," furnish needed information in 
their particular lines. In Coffin's "Building the Nation" and in "Our 
First Century," interesting matter may be obtained for young readers. 



SECTION X. 

THE NATION THREATENED. 

Besides the general histories, mentioned above, as covering the whole or 
a part of this period, the following' special histories should be again noted, 
— Taussig's " Tariff History of the United States " and Sumner's " History 
of American Currency." A very recent and valuable production is Rhodes' 
"History of the United States," the first two volumes covering the period 
from 1850 to i860. Spring's "Kansas" gives the best account of the 
" Border War." 

Among the " American Statesmen Series " the following are important 
aids for students in United States History, — Schurz's "Clay," Von Hoist's 
"Calhoun," Lodge's "Webster," Sumner's "Jackson," and Morse's "John 
Quincy Adams." Johnston's " Representative American Orations " fur- 
nishes just what it claims to do. Peirce's " Charles Sumner " gives an 
accurate account of one of the most prominent of the antislavery leaders. 
Olmstead's " Cotton Kingdom " is the best presentation of the social 
conditions of the slave States. The first chapters of works on the Civil 
War, mentioned below, are devoted to the history leading up to the 
great contest. 

Among the many contemporaneous accounts of the history of this 
period the following hold a high position, — the correspondence of Daniel 
■ Webster, that of Henry Clay, the " Memoirs " of John Quincy Adams, 
"Perley's Reminiscences," and Benton's "Thirty Years' View." 



SOURCES OF INFORMATION. XXIX 

SECTION XL 
THE NATION ASSURED. 

For the causes of the Civil War the statements for one side or the 
other are fully given in the following works, — Greeley's " American Con- 
flict," Stephens' " War between the States/' Davis' " Rise and Fall of the 
Confederate Government, " and Pollard's " Lost Cause." 

For the Civil War itself the student may examine Comte de Paris' 
" History of the Civil War in America," Ropes' " History of the Civil 
War," Rhodes' "History of the United States," vol. iii.. Dodge's " Bird's- 
Eye View of the Civil War," The Century Company's " War Book," and 
the series entitled " Campaigns of the Civil War." Grant's " Memoirs," 
"Memoirs of General W. T. Sherman," Sheridan's "Personal Memoirs," 
" McClellan's Own Story," and Longstreet's " From Manassas to Appomat- 
tox," and many other personal reminiscences of the generals of the Civil 
War are at the disposal of the student. The various lives of Lincoln, large 
and small, must not be overlooked. 

SECTION XIIo 

THE NATION AT PEACE. 

The period from 1865 to the Spanish War is too recent to have furnished 
many good histories. Most of the information which can be obtained is 
to be found in contemporary periodicals. Compilations like Appleton's 
" Annual Cyclopedia " are of value to the student. 

Memoirs and reminiscences contain much that is suggestive. Among 
these may be mentioned "The Sherman Letters," John Sherman's '' Recol- 
lections of Forty Years," Cox's " Three Decades," Blaine's " Twenty Years 
in Congress," and " Butler's Book." Among the special works, McPherson's 
"History of Reconstruction" will be found valuable. The biographies in 
the " Statesmen Series " of Thaddeus Stephens by McCall, of William H. 
Seward by Lothrop, of Charles Sumner by Storey, of Salmon P. Chase by 
Hart give interesting material for the period following the Civil War. 
Campaign lives of each of the leading candidates for President have been 
written, which, if carefully sifted, may furnish something of value. The 
only important attempt to cover this period of our history is Andrews' 
" History of the United States during the Last Quarter-Century." 



XXX SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 

SECTION XIII. 
NATIONAL EXPANSION. 

For conditions in Cuba before American interference, Flint's " Marching 
with Gomez," Musgrave's " Under Three Flags in Cuba," Halsted's ''Story 
of Cuba" will give points of interest. Charles D. Sigsbee in "The 
' Maine ' : An Account of Her Destruction in Havana Harbor," Richmond P. 
Hobson in " The Sinking of the ' Merrimac,' " Theodore Roosevelt in " The 
Rough Riders," Clara Barton in '' The Red Cross in Peace and War " have 
written valuable contemporaneous accounts of the Cuban campaign. More 
general works are Lodge's "The War with Spain," Mahan's " Lessons of the 
War with Spain," Callahan's "Cuba and International Relations," and 
Draper's " The Rescue of Cuba." 

For Hawaiian history, Blackman's " The Making of Hawaii," Carpenter's 
" America in Hawaii," Twombley's " Hawaii and Its People," and various 
books of description and travel may be read with profit. The student must 
depend almost wholly on the current magazines and newspapers for infor- 
mation on events in United States history since the close of the Spanish 
War. 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



OBlacfeboart) analrjsijS* 



Discovery 



NORTHMEN Vinland. 

COLUMBUS Guanahani. 

CABOT North America. 

BALBOA South Sea. 

l^ MAGELLAN Around the World, 



NEW 
WOELD 



Exploration 



DE LEON Florida. 

DE SOTO Mississippi. 

VERRAZANO Atlantic Coast. 

CHAMPLAIN St. Lawrence. 

DRAKE Pacific Coas?:. 

I FROBISHER Labrador. 



Settlement , 

(Attempted) 



fCARTIER Quebec. 

HUGUENOTS Carolana. 

GILBERT Newfoundland. 

RALEIGH Roanoke Island. 

I GOSNOLD Buzzard's Bay. 




fart I. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 
1492-1763. 



SECTION I. 

DISCOVERY, EXPLORATION, AND ATTEMPTED SETTLEMENT. 

1492-1602. 



CHAPTER L 

DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD. 

1. The Known World during the Fifteenth Century. — At the time 
of the discovery of America, nearly all portions of the world were 
inhabited, though but a few nations were in any sense civilized. 
There were the Indians of America, the Negroes of Africa, the 
Chinese of Eastern Asia; but the world with which the civilized 
peoples were acquainted comprised only a quarter of that with 
which we are familiar. Observe that northeastern Asia, the larg- 
est part of Africa, the Western Hemisphere, and nearly all the 
islands of the sea were unknown to the Europeans of the fifteenth 
century. 

2. Causes of this Ignorance. — The savage nature of the tribes in- 
habiting some of these regions kept them from associating with the 
civilized nations. The vessels of that time were crude and unsea- 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



[1492 




worthy, and there existed a superstitious fear of things unknown. 
The means of communication between one nation and another 

were poor, both because of 
V'^iS^:^:^^^^^^^^:!::::^^^ the difficulty in travelling, 

and because of the differences 
in languages and the labor 
involved in writing manu- 
scripts. The sailors of the 
time were willing to make 
voyages only where the shore 
could be kept constantly in 
sight. As the compass was 
not in general use, they had 
to depend upon the sun and 
stars for guidance. Their 
trips were confined mostly 
to the Mediterranean Sea, 
though a few of the more venturesome made voyages between 
Spain and England, keeping close all the way to the shore of 
France. 

3 Voyages of the Northmen. — In spite of these apprehensions, 
some of the bolder sailors among the nations of northern Europe, 
partly by accident, and partly from very 
foolhardiness, had reached countries 
hitherto unknown. The inhabitants of 
what is now Norway were called Norse- 
men, and are famous in history for 
their warlike nature and their bold sea- 
manship. The people dwelling along 
the sea-coasts of England and Scot- 
land, and of that portion of France 
now called Normandy, were in con- 
stant fear of these Northmen, who, 
without a moment's warning, would sail down upon them, and 
not only plunder them of their possessions, but frequently carry 
them away captive. These hardy voyagers were the discoverers 
of Iceland during the ninth century, being driven there by severe 
storms. Making a settlement, they were able, in the next hundred 



Old Stone Mill. — In Touro Park, 
Newport, R. I., stands a "circular stone 
tower, with round arches," which has 
been called the " Round Tower," or the 
" Old Stone Mill." The tradition has 
been current that it was built by the 
Northmen during the eleventh century. 
This explanation is not generally ac- 
cepted at the present time, as it has 
been clearly shown that it was a colonial 
windmill. Towers similar in appear- 
ance are still standing in those portions 
of Great Britain, from which some of 
the settlers of Rhode Island emigrated. 



looo] 



DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD. 



years, to go even farther from the beaten tracks, and to discover 
and make a temporary colony on the shores of Greenland. Not 
even with this remote island did these bold navigators end their 
voyages. In the ** Sagas," or stories sung by the Norse bards, 
which are like the Greek songs of Homer, accounts have been 
found of voyages beyond Greenland to a most delightful country, 
abounding in wild grapes, and thence called Vinland. 

4. Leif Ericson's Discovery. — The first visit to Vinland was made, 
in the year 1000, by a Norseman called Leif, the son of Eric. 
Many think that Leif and his compan- 
ions, sailing from Greenland, passed 
along by the coasts of Labrador, Nova 
Scotia, and Maine, and landed some- 
where in southern Massachusetts or 
Rhode Island. The Sagas report that 
one or more winters were spent in this 
delightful region, and that the voyagers 
then returned home, and told the stories 
of what they had found. Because this 
Norseman came to the shores of New 
England at a time so early in history, 
the credit of discovering America is 
sometimes given to him. The dis- 
covery was not followed by other 
voyages, however, and the fact of the 
existence of land to the westward of 
Europe continued to be unknown to 
the inhabitants of the Old World. In 
those days, not only was communication 
between nations very difficult, but also the art of printing had not 
been discovered ; and the Norse Sagas were handed down by word 
of mouth, as they had not been committed to writing. 

5. Trade with India. — There were many reasons which tended 
to make the year 1492 rather than the year 1000 the date of the 
discovery of America. The voyage of Leif to the shores of New 
England was not made with any definite purpose, nor did it pro- 
duce any valuable results. The establishment of the printing-press, 
the scattering of the learned men of the Eastern Roman Empire 



In De Costa's " Pre-Columbian Dis- 
covery of America by the Northmen," 
are given quotations from the Ice- 
landic Sagas. A portion of one of these 
runs as follows : "It happened one even- 
ing that a man of the party was miss- 
ing, and it was the south countryman, 
Tyrker. . . . Leif . . . proposed to go to 
find him ; but they had only gone a 
short way from the station when Tyrker 
came to meet them. , . . Leif said to him, 
' Wliy art thou so late, my foster-father ? 
and why didst thou leave thy com- 
rades ? '. . , After a while, and some de- 
lay, he said in Norse, ' I did not go 
much further than they ; and yet I have 
something altogether new to relate, for 
I have found vines and grapes.' ' Is 
that true, my foster-father ? ' said Leif. 
' Yes, true it is,' answered he, ' for I 
was born where there was no scarcity 
of grapes.' They slept all night, and 
the next morning Leif said to his men, 
* Now we shall have two occupations 
to attend to. . . namely, to gather grajies 
or cut vines, and to fell wood in the 
forest to lade our vessel.' " 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



[H53 



Printing. — " In Europe, as late as 
the second half of the fourteenth cen- 
tury, every book (including school and 
prayer books), and every public and 
private document, proclamation, bull, 
letter, etc., was written by hand; all 
figures and pictures, even playing-cards 
and images of saints, were drawn with 
the pen or painted with a brush. . . . 
When all this writing, transcribing, illu- 
minating, etc., had reached their period 
of greatest development, the art of print- 
ing from wooden blocks on silk, cloth, 
vellum, and paper made its appearance 
in Europe. . . . The invention of printing 
with movable metal types took place 
at Haarlem about the year 1444, by 
Lourens Janszoon Coster." (Typog- 
raphy : Encyclopaedia Britannica. Vol. 
XXIII., Ninth Ed.) The art of print- 
ing spread rapidly; and, by the time 
of Columbus, nearly every European 
city of any prominence had introduced 
the printing-press. 



throughout Europe, at the fall of Constantinople, and the conse- 
quent formation of schools, came later than the time of Eric. The 

trade that had sprung up between India 
and Europe by caravan to the Medi- 
terranean, and thence by vessel to the 
ports of Venice and Genoa, was the 
main incentive to the voyage which 
resulted in the discovery of a new 
continent. Silks, spices, and precious 
stones were being brought in great 
abundance when the pirates, with whom 
the Mediterranean Sea had long been 
infested, nearly brought the commerce 
to an end, by their captures of these 
richly laden vessels. The conquest of 
Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453, 
was the last blow to the trade between 
India and Genoa. The question at 
once presented itself, whether a new 
route was possible. The Portuguese 
attempted to find a way by sailing south, along the west shore 
of Africa, around the southern point, and thence north again to 
India. Bartolomeo Diaz, a Portuguese captain, discovered the 
** Cape of Storms," or, as it is now called, the Cape of Good 
Hope, in 1487. The first voyage to India was made ten years later, 
and five years after the discovery of America, when Da Gama, 
another Portuguese sailor, reached the land of spices, by sailing 
around the coast of Africa. 

6. Christopher Columbus. — The Italian boy, Cristoforo Colombo, 
or, as the Latin form of his name is the more common, Christopher 
Columbus, was born in Genoa about the year 1436, and spent most 
of his life, after early boyhood, upon the sea. He was an excellent 
sailor, for his time, and a man unusually well read, capable of think- 
ing for himself. He was ready to accept new ideas when made 
clear to him, and was possessed of much less than the usual amount 
of superstition. He had made many voyages himself, and, loyal 
to his native city, was eager to find a new route to India. He had 
accepted the theory, held in those days by only a few of the most 



I 436-1 492] 



DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD. 



learned men, that the world was round 

with his head, but also 

with his heart; and, 

thoroughly imbued with 

this belief, nothing could 

turn him from the idea 

that he could reach India 

by sailing westward, 

across the unknown 

Atlantic. 

7. The Preparation. — 
Columbus was right in 
his belief that the earth 
was round, and not flat, 
but was in error in re- 
gard to the distance to 



He not only believed it 



?t?3^s:;^^ 








be travelled in reaching 
Asia by sailing west from 
Europe. He had made 
his own estimate of the 
size of the world, and 
thought that India must 
be but a few hundred 



Old Stone Mill at Newport, R. I. 

miles west of Spain, or a less distance even than the width of the 

Atlantic. It was fortunate that he deemed? 
the distance so small ; otherwise, he migkf 
never have sailed. 

The story of his attempts to obtain tht 
means for this desired voyage is a very 
interesting one. Only a poor sailor, with 
no influence at court, he nevertheless 
^,,|| tried his fortunes with the authorities of 
the city of Genoa, at the court of the 
king of Portugal, with the king of Eng- 
land, and at last with Ferdinand and 
Isabella of Spain. The learned men at 
these courts opposed him. They talked 

of the " Sea of Darkness," and derided his notion as to the shape 




Queen Isabella. 



8 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



[1492 



of the earth. If he sailed down, how could he sail up again? This 
was an argument that seemed to them unanswerable. Columbus 

was ready to give up, and 
retired from court; but, 
for some unknown reason. 
Queen Isabella called him 
back, had another confer- 
ence with him, and finally 
decided to grant his re- 
quest. He was furnished 
with means to fit out three 
small vessels, and, with the 
aid of a family of merchants, 
Pinzon by name, Columbus 
was soon ready to set out 
from the port of Palos. 

8. The Voyage. — This 
small fleet of three vessels, 
carrying but ninety sailors 
and thirty noblemen and 
priests, set sail on a voyage of uncertainty, on the 3d of August, 
1492. Columbus headed first for the Canary Isles, the last known 




Christopher Columbus. 
(After a painting in the Marine Museum, Madrid.) 




ROUTE OF COLUMBUS 




land to the westward, and remained there until the 6th of Septem- 
ber, repairing the damages already received by the vessels. From 



1492] 



DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD. 



here he sailed west, and ahiiost immediately found himself sur- 
rounded by mutinous seamen. The common sailors of the fifteenth 
century were very superstitious; and, as they left known lands and 
seas farther and farther behind them, 
they feared more and more the hideous 
monsters of their dreams. They dreaded 
the falling-off place at the end of the 
world, and the impossibility, as they 
thought, of ever being able to sail up 
the curve of the earth. Columbus 
showed his strength of character by 
the way he treated these sailors, and 
prevailed upon them to continue. He 
spoke of the wealth which lay ahead 
of them, of the punishment that would 
be theirs if they returned empty- 
handed, and finally promised to turn 
back if land was not seen within a 
certain time. At last, on the 12th of 
October, 1492, Columbus and his men 
sighted, not India, nor one of its 
islands, but an island belonging to a 
hitherto unknown continent. In the 
morning, with all due pomp and ceremony, the leader landed, knelt 
and kissed the soil, planted the banner of Spain, and took posses- 
sion, in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella, of an island which 
was called Guanahani. He continued his voyage a few days; dis- 
covered Cuba and others of the West Indies; and returned to Palos 
to be received with almost royal honors. 



Columbus's Later Life. —After 
Columbus had spent a few months in 
visiting other islands in the neiglibor- 
hood of Guanahani, he set sail for Spain 
in January, 1493. After a stormy voy- 
age of about three months he arrived at 
the Spanish city of Barcelona. Here 
a triumphant entry was accorded him, 
and in the procession were strange In- 
dians, unknown birds, and ricli goods 
whicli he had brought from the " In- 
dies." He was received in state by 
Ferdinand and Isabella, and was granted 
the honor of personally giving an ac- 
count of his voyages to the royal court. 

On the second voyage, Columbus was 
made ruler of the Island of Hispa- 
niola; but afterwards he was arrested 
and carried back to Spain in chains. 
The queen had pity on him, and set him 
free, but did not allow him to return to 
his colony. He made a third and a 
fourth voyage, and on one of these he 
discovered the river Orinoco and the 
mainland of South America. Colum- 
bus died in poverty, unattended by any 
friends, May 20, 1506. 





"», 




/ 


^ 






r 


^ 




1^ 


w' 


^S^^^^^^fe^^*:'^^^^^^^ 


^ 


1^ 


fw -=- —' 


\^'"<^" ~-_r=^.^==^r^ ; 







Cigfu.mbu) crossing <he Aftftnti«. 



lO ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. * [l497 

CHAPTER II. 

ALONG THE COAST. 

9. The Cabots. — The report of the wonderful voyage of Colum- 
bus spread over Europe, and other nations besides the Spaniards 
became interested in the discovery. England, France, and Portugal 
followed the lead of Spain; and from the ports of these countries 
hardy seamen were soon sailing westward in search of unknown 
shores. Among the first of these were two Italians, father and son, 
who sailed under the English flag. John Cabot, a citizen of Venice, 
received a commission from Henry VII., the king of England. This 
patent gave him permission to fit out vessels at his own expense, 
but required him to pay one-fifth of all his profits to King Henry. 
If he discovered any new land, he was to take possession of it in the 
name of the king of England. 

In the year 1497, five years after the discovery made by Colum- 
bus, John Cabot and his son Sebastian came in sight of the con- 
tinent of North America, and landed on the coast of Labrador, far 
to the north of the United States. The next year, 1498, under a 
second patent from King Henry, Cabot made another voyage, and not 
merely reached the American continent, but sailed from Labrador, 
along the United States coast, to a point as far south as Maryland 
or Virginia. These two voyages, one discovering the continent, 
the other exploring the coast, gave England a claim to the land, 
which later received her sons and daughters, and has furnished a 
home for a large portion of the Anglo-Saxon race. 

10. America. — Near the close of the fifteenth century, an Italian, 
by the name of Amerigo Vespucci, made three or four voyages, fol- 
lowing i-n the track of Columbus. This man wrote of the *' New 
World, " thus indicating that he did not believe, as did Columbus, 
that India had been reached. A friend of Amerigo, hearing of his 
expression, suggested that the new world should be named America 
for him. Thus the honor that doubtless should have gone to Co- 
lumbus, the real discoverer, was granted to a man who would other- 
wise have remained practically unknown. 



15^3] 



ALONG THE COAST. 



II 



11. Balboa. — Two other great discoveries were made during the 
early portion of the sixteenth century, before the western route to 
India, that Columbus sought, was found. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, 
a Spaniard, had been made governor of Darien, in Central America. 
Stories had come to him of the fabulous wealth of Peru, and he 
determined to set out on a search for gold. He was doomed to 
disappointment in this search, but in 15 13, from the top of a ridge 




First Sight of Land. 



of mountains in Central America, Balboa was the first European to 
look out upon the broad expanse of the Pacific Ocean. As it lay to 
the south, he named it the *' South Sea." He thus ascertained that 
the continent which lay between Europe and Asia was, at least in 
one place, very narrow. By this discovery, he strengthened the 
ardor of Europeans to find a passage through the land that appeared 
to be but an obstacle in their way. 



12 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1519-1539 

12. Magellan. — Since the time of Balboa there have been many 
attempts to find a water route through America. Sometimes a 
northwest passage was sought; sometimes a southwest passage; 
and to-day, a canal across the narrow portion of the continent seems 
an absolute necessity. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese by birth, 
but at the time in charge of a Spanish fleet, was the first to find a 
passage through the continent, and no other has yet been obtained. 
Magellan set out in the fall of 15 19, and late in the year 1520 sailed 
through tlie straits, near the southern limit of South America, which 
have received his name. As he passed out of the stormy Straits of 
Magellan into the quieter waters of the great ocean, he gave to that 
body of water, which Balboa had called the *' South Sea, " the name 
of the Pacific. After a voyage of more than three years, one of the 
vessels of the fleet, under the command of Sebastian del Cano, 
returned to the same harbor of Spain: having reached India, and 
been the first to sail around the world, doubling tiie Cape of Good 
Hope on her return voyage. 

13. Ponce de Leon. — About the time of Balboa's fruitless search 
for gold, another Spaniard determined to seek a boon more valu- 
able as well as more fabulous. Juan Ponce de Leon set sail from 
Porto Rico in search of the fountain of perpetual youth, which was 
reported to furnish renewed health to all that bathed in its healing 
waters. He failed to find what he sought, but yet obtained the 
credit of being the first to set foot upon the shores of the southern 
portion of the United States. In the year 15 13, Ponce first saw 
land on Easter Sunday, a day which is called Pascua Florida in 
Spanish, and he called the beautiful land Florida. 

14. Ferdinand de Soto. — The desire to find marvellous gold 
mines in Florida caused Ferdinand de Soto, the governor of Cuba, 
to make an exploring expedition through Florida and the region 
north of the Gulf of Mexico. He landed at Tampa Bay in 1539, 
and marched through portions of all the Gulf States. After two 
years of great suffering, he reached the shores of the Mississippi 
River not far from the present city of Memphis. De Soto was the 
first European to view this, the most important river of the world, 
and after another year's march through Missouri, Arkansas, and 
Louisiana, he reached the river again, only to die and to be buried in 
Its waters. Of the six hundred that left Cuba with enthusiasm 



1579] CANADA AND CAROLANA. 1 3 

and energy, about three hundred men returned, worn out and dis- 
heartened, after a four years' journey. 

15. Drake. — There was a long interval after the voyages of the 
Cabots before any other attempts were made to extend the influence 
of England upon the new continent. Sir Francis Drake was the first 
Englishman to explore the Pacific coast, and to look upon the land 
that now forms the western extent of the United States. He was an 
adventurer, and was traversing the Pacific Ocean, seeking to obtain 
wealth by attacking Spanish merchant vessels. After obtaining 
immense treasures, he followed along the coast in 1579 as far as 
Oregon, named the country New Albion, and returned to England 
by way of the Cape of Good Hope, being the second to sail around 
the world. England acquired her first claims to the territory of the 
present United States and British America by the explorations of the 
Cabots along the Atlantic, and of Drake along the Pacific coast. 



CHAPTER III. 

CANADA AND CAROLANA. 

16. Early French Voyages. — The discoveries of Columbus and the 
Cabots had their influence upon the French as well as upon the 
Spanish and the English. As early as the first years of the sixteenth 
century the hardy fishermen of eastern France had learned of the 
fisheries of Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Not only 
were voyages made for the purpose of obtaining fish, but, as early 
as the year 1524, efibrts were made to explore the coast and to find 
suitable localities for colonization. 

John Verrazano, an Italian, was sent out by King Francis I. to in- 
vestigate these new countries and to bring back word if they could be 
made of use to the French people. This bold voyager not only passed 
over a course which included the route of the Cabots (If 9), but also 
made careful explorations and carried home the earliest account of 
the coast that has been preserved. His explorations extended from 
the latitude of Wilmington, N. C, to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. He 
entered the harbors of New York and Newport, and investigated the 



H 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1534-1562 



characteristics of the country. The chart that Verrazano made, as a 
result of this voyage, was of great value to many of the later explorers. 

17. Cartier. — A few years after the first voyage of Verrazano, a 
decided effort was made to establish a French colony on the new 
continent. James Cartier was given command of an expedition that 
left St. Malo, France, in the spring of 1534, and, passing around 
Newfoundland, he entered the great bay since called the St. Law- 
rence. He was the first to sail up the great river of Canada, and 
his voyage resulted in turning French attention to that country. 
Cartier made another expedition the next year, with the design of 
establishing a colony. On this voyage he explored the St. Law- 
rence as far as navigation permitted, gave to a hill on the island 
of Hochelaga the name of Mont-Real, and spent the winter on 
the island of Orleans. The fearful cold of this northern region, 
combined with want of proper food, caused much sickness during 
this winter, and the surviving members of the party were very glad 
to return home in the spring. They carried most unfavorable 
reports of the country, and for a time nothing further was attempted 
in the way of exploration or colonization. 

18. The Huguenots. — The sixteenth century is noted especially for 
the great Reformation. Luther and Calvin are the best known of 

those men who were dissatisfied with 
the religion of the day, and were op- 
posed to the errors that seemed to 
them Inseparable from its forms. In 
France, the theories of Calvin obtained 
a strong foothold, and near the middle 
of the century a persecution was begun 
against the Huguenots, as the followers 
of Calvin in France were called. Ad- 
miral Coligny was one of the leaders 
of the Protestant party, and he con- 
ceived the idea of founding a colony 
on the coast of America, where the 
persecuted Huguenots might find ref- 
uge. In 1562, he obtained from the boy-king, Charles IX., the 
necessary authority, and sent forth a squadron to seek for a suitable 
location for settlement. 



Gaspard de Coligny was born in 
1517, and was made Admiral of France 
before he was forty years of age. He 
was an ardent Huguenot, and the con- 
tinuous religious wars in France led him 
to plan the formation of Huguenot colo- 
nies in some portion of the New World. 
Besides the two parties sent out under 
Ribault and Laudonniere, Coligny at- 
tempted to make a settlement in Brazil. 
In one of the civil wars a price of fifty 
thousand crowns was set upon the ad- 
miral's head, but within a year a tem- 
porary peace was made. The great 
massacre of St. Bartholomew occurred 
on August 24, 1572, and Coligny was 
the first to be put to death, at the age 
of fifty-five. 



I562-1564] CANADA AND CAROLANA. 1 5 

19. Port Royal. — Remembering the failures of Cartier, John 
Ribault, the leader of the expedition, sought a warmer climate, 
and the first land seen was near the northern line of Florida. He 
sailed along the coast, naming the streams as he passed them, and 
made a settlement at what appeared to be the mouth of a great river. 
Near the southern end of the shore of South Carolina lies the harbor 
of Port Royal, and here the French built a fort and started a colony. 
The name of Charles, or Carolana, was given to the fort, in honor of 
the king, and this name was afterward applied to the whole region. 
The leader returned with the ships to France, for the purpose of 
obtaining reinforcements, leaving twenty-six persons to hold pos- 
session of the country. The continued religious wars in France 
prevented the sending of supplies and men, and, after a few months 
of waiting, the colonists set out for home in a vessel built by them- 
selves. They had nearly lost their lives from famine when an 
English vessel met them and carried them away captive. 

20. Fort Caroline. — Coligny was not disheartened by this failure, 
and, during the truce in France, obtained the consent of the king to 
another expedition. In 1564, a fleet set sail, under the leadership 
of Laudonniere, to seek another harbor where a settlement could be 
made. The vessels were turned to the River of May, which the 
earlier party had observed, and there another Fort Caroline was 
built. This river, which is now called the St. Johns, lay within the 
territory of Florida, which the Spaniards had already discovered 
and explored. This fact was enough to cause serious trouble, even 
if the colony had nothing else to contend with. The character of 
the emigrants was the most important obstacle in the way, however, 
as the larger number of them were dissolute men, unable and 
unwilling to yield to the necessary rules of government. The colony 
lasted but about a year, being overthrown by the Spaniards, who 
had made a neighboring settlement at St. Augustine. 

21. St. Augustine More than fifty years passed after the dis- 
covery of Florida by Ponce de Leon (IT 13) before the Spaniards 
made any serious attempt at colonization of the country. Perhaps 
fifty years more would have passed, had not the settlement of 
French Huguenots appealed both to the patriotism and the bigotry 
of the Spanish king, Philip II. Pedro Menendez was a Spanish 
soldier, bigoted and cruel as his king; and to him was committed 



i6 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



[1555 



Philip II., king of Spain, was born 
in 1527, and occupied the throne from 
1556 until 1598. His father, Charles V., 
was not only king of Spain, but also 
" Emperor of the Romans," and ruler 
over Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany, 
and the Netherlands. Philip succeeded 
to but a portion of his father's dominion, 
and was always plotting to regain the 
authority. He was an ardent believer 
in the Roman Catholic religion and the 
authority of the Pope. He persecuted 
the inhabitants of the Netherlands for 
their religion, until they revolted from 
his authority. The long eighty years' 
war began early in his reign, and he 
spent boundless wealth in the vain 
attempt to subjugate the Dutch. He 
died in 1598, after a long and painful 
illness. 



the opportunity to conquer these weak colonists and to make a 
Spanish settlement. Menendez sailed from Spain in 1565, and 
reached the coast of Florida on the day 
held sacred to St. Augustine. Finding 
an excellent harbor, he gave it the 
name of the saint, and, on September 8th, 
1565, laid the foundation of St. Au- 
gustine, the oldest town in the United 
States. 

22. Religious Wars. — When Ribault 
learned of the Spanish settlement, he 
decided, after much deliberation, to 
take the offensive and make an attack 
upon the intruders. As the French 
fleet left the harbor of Fort Caroline 
a severe storm arose, which destroyed 
nearly all the vessels, though but few 
of the men were lost. The Spanish fleet did not suffer so much, 
and, before the French could reach Fort Caroline again, Menendez 

had surprised the fort and cap- 
tured it. The Huguenot pris- 
oners, men, women, and chil- 
dren, were at once massacred, 
a few only escaping t ':' the 
woods. The Spanish fleet soon 
met and captured the French 
vessels that had not been de- 
stroyed, and the captives were 
taken to St. Augustine. Here 
all of the Huguenots, with the 
exception of a few mechanics 
who were held as slaves, were 
immediately hung. At this 
time France was at peace with 
Spain, and Menendez claimed 
that these people were put to 
death, ** Not as Frenchmen, but as Lutherans." 

23. Revenge. — The French colony was entirely swept out of 




Old Gateway at St. Augustine. 



1565] GILBERT AND RALEIGH. 1 7 



existence, and no further attempt has ever been made by the French 
to settle this portion of the New World. The French government 
paid no attention to these acts of the Spaniards, and the only 
punishment ever received was given by a single Frenchman, on his 
own responsibility. Dominic de Gourgues captured the fort which 
the Spaniards had built on the site of Fort Caroline, but was unable 
to hold it. He hung his prisoners, placing over their heads, in 
mockery of Menendez, " I do not this as unto Spaniards or mariners, 
but as unto traitors, robbers, and murderers." While the French 
abandoned Carolana, or French Florida, as it was sometimes called, 
the Spaniards retained possession, and Florida remained a Spanish 
colony until 1763 (H 160). 



CHAPTER IV. 

GILBERT AND RALEIGH. 

24. English Colonization The sympathies of a large number of 

the people of England were ai'oused in behalf of the persecuted 
Huguenots during the terrible religious wars. After Henry VIII., 
king of England, had withdrawn his nation from its connection with 
the Roman Catholic Church, many of England's leading citizens lent 
their aid to their fellow-Protestants in France. Thus the unsuccess- 
ful attempts of the Huguenots to settle Florida turned the atten- 
tion of certain English noblemen to the advantages of an English 
colony on the American shores. When Queen Elizabeth came 
to the throne of England, the hatred of the English people toward 
Spaniards had become so intensified that the enthusiasm to obtain 
from America the resources which Spain was acquiring was greatly 
increased (IF 15). The idea of finding a northwest passage to 
India also entered, to a great extent, into the calculations of the 
English adventurers. At the beginning of the last quarter of the 
sixteenth century the time was ready for the English to begin that 
colonization which was finally to overpower that of the French and 
the Spanish. 



1 8 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1576-1583 

25. Labrador. — The first attempt at colonization was made by 
Martin Frobisher. The great thought in his mind was similar to 
that of Columbus ; namely, a new route to India. He claimed that 
the finding of a northwest passage through America to Asia was 
" the only thing of the world, that was yet left undone, by which a 
notable minde might be made famous and fortunate. " His fleet of 
three small vessels left the Thames in 1576; but one was lost 
in a storm, a second turned back from fear, and, with but one vessel, 
Frobisher reached the coast of Labrador, near the entrance to Hud- 
son Bay. 

The straits which he discovered appeared to be the passage 
that he sought, and a stone which he carried back to England 
caused great excitement, because it was thought to contain gold. 
This voyage was followed two years later by an expedition for the 
purpose of leaving a colony to search for the gold which was con- 
fidently believed to exist in great quantities on this northern coast. 
Icebergs crushed some of the vessels, some were lost in the fogs, but 
Frobisher finally reached the harbor. The idea of forming a settle- 
nTient was abandoned, the vessels were loaded with the valueless 
cargo of earth, and returned at once. Thus the first plan of settle- 
ment by the English on the coast of America proved only an utter 
failure. 

26. Gilbert. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert was the second Englishman 
to plan a settlement. He obtained a favorable charter from the 
queen, and began to collect a body of men who volunteered to help 
establish the colony which he desired. He sailed in 1583, and, 
after having lost his largest vessel by desertion, reached Newfound- 
land in August. His first act was to take official possession of 
the island in the name of the queen, and the second to load his 
vessels with " ore, " which was supposed to contain silver. Gilbert 
was not satisfied with the situation, and soon sailed again to seek 
the shores of the mainland. A storm wrecked the largest remain- 
ing vessel, the " ore " was lost, and the two small vessels that were 
left were compelled to sail for England. Gilbert's vessel, the " Squir- 
rel, " was lost on this return voyage, and he himself perished, while 
the " Hind " alone brought the disastrous news back to England. 

27. Raleigh. — Gilbert's half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, had 
been interested in his adventures, and was ready to take up the 



I584-I585] 



GILBERT AND RALEIGH. 



19 



work which he had left. He had a personal knowledge of the 
Huguenots of France, and his thoughts turned to Carolana, as a 
region with a more suitable cli- 
mate than that of Labrador or 
Newfoundland. He obtained an- 
other patent from Queen Eliz- 
abeth, and in 1584 sent out 
two vessels for the New World. 
They sailed first for the Cana- 
ries, thence to the West Indies, 
and from there reached the 
coast of Carolana, the whole voy- 
age taking about nine weeks. 
They took possession of the 
land, and chose as a suitable 
place for their settlement the 
island of Roanoke. They then 
returned to England, and carried 




Sir Walter Raleigh. 



such favorable reports of the land they had found that it was an 
easy matter to obtain emigrants. Accordingly, the next year, 1585, 

seven vessels, with one hundred and 
eight colonists, set out for Virginia, 
as the Virgin Queen, Elizabeth, had 
named the lands. The colony was 
formed, the settlement made, and the 
fleet returned to England. 

28. Roanoke Island The work oi 

the colonists consisted mainly in a 
search for gold. The leaders obtained 
valuable information with regard to the 
geography of the region and the char- 
acter of the inhabitants of the land 
They investigated the strange products 
of the soil, such as maize and tobacco, 
and when they returned to England 
carried samples with them. There 
were no farmers amiong them however, and hunting for precious 
metals was of no value in furnishing food. Time was wasted in a 



Sir Walter Raleigh was born in 
Devonshire, England, in 1552. The 
part which he took in the campaign in 
Ireland in 1581 brought him to the 
attention of Queen Elizabeth, who con- 
tinued to consider him as one of her 
favorite courtiers to the time of her 
death. Sir Walter was very much in- 
terested in the colonization of the "New 
World," and, besides his tA-o unsuc- 
cessful attempts at Roanoke Island, in 
16 16 he explored the Orinoco River and 
the country called Guiana. On return- 
ing home, Raleigh was arrested on a 
charge of making an attack upon a 
Spanish village. He had not brought 
with him any of the expected gold, and, 
because of this, together with his un- 
popularity at the court of King James, 
he was sentenced for treason. He was 
accordingly executed, Oct. 29, 161 8. 



20 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1586-1587 




^^^Vh^y^ROANOKE ISLAND 

Cape Lookout 



search for the "South Sea" by sailing up the Roanoke River, 
and the colonists did not hesitate to deceive the Indians, and thus 

aroused their hostility. The strange- 
ness of colonial life began to tell 
upon the men, and when Sir Francis 
Drake (IF 15) entered Roanoke Inlet, 
in June, 1586, the colonists sought 
and obtained permission to return with 
him to England. This first settle- 
ment at Roanoke was thus suddenly 
brought to an end, having lasted but 
about a year. 

29. The Second Colony. — The colo- 
nists had hardly sailed for home when 
vessels with supplies and reinforce- 
ments arrived to find the island de- 
serted. The commander of the fleet 
left fifteen men upon the island, and 
returned to England for further in- 
structions from Raleigh. A second 
colony was sent over the next year, 1587, better fitted to cope 
with the difficulties that must be encountered. Women were sent 
with the men, and some of the party 
were qualified to cultivate the land. 
The new expedition reached Roanoke 
in July, and decided to remain there, 
although the intention had been to try 
a new location upon Chesapeake Bay. 
The m.en that had been left at the 
settlement the previous year were miss- 
ing, having doubtless been killed by 
the Indians, in retaliation for the treat- 
ment that they had received from the 
first colony. 

Governor White returned to England within a few weeks to ask 
for the supplies and reinforcements that the colonists deemed 
necessary, and left them without a leader. Before he departed, 
however, an interesting event took place, in the birth of his grand- 



Tobacco. — When the colonists re- 
turned to England in 1586, they carried 
with them a quantity of tobacco which 
they had learned to use from the 
Indians. Raleigh adopted the novel 
habit, and a story is current of the 
result that followed. It is related that 
a servant came into his master's room 
one day on an errand, and was terri- 
fied to find smoke coming from Ra- 
leigh's mouth. He threw a cup of 
ale, which he had in his hand, over his 
master's head, and ran out shouting 
that Raleigh was on fire and would 
soon be burned to ashes. 



I587-I602] 



GILBERT AND RALEIGH. 



21 



daughter. This Httle girl, Virginia Dare, the first English child born 
on this continent, was named after the place of her birth. 

Three years passed before the wars in Europe permitted the 
sending of the needed supplies. In 1587, Governor White left 
a colony of eighty-nine men, seventeen women, and two children, 
on the island of Roanoke. In 1 590, he returned to the New World 
to find no sign whatever of these people, among whom were his 
daughter and granddaughter, except a mark upon one of the 
trees, which was perhaps intended to direct them to a neighboring 
island. Nothing was found there, however, and the question has 
never been settled as to what became of the colonists. Either they 
were murdered by the Indians, or else, as recent investigations would 
seem to indicate, they were adopted as members of an Indian tribe. 

30. Gosnold. — One more attempted settlement needs mention in 
this connection. Bartholomew Gosnold determined to try his for- 
tune in colonizing America, or at least in aiding in the future 
settlement. He sailed in a single vessel direct to the New World, 
instead of by the roundabout route previously used, and in May, 
1602, reached land near Cape Ann (IT 57). Passing along the 
coast, he missed Boston and Plymouth harbors, and, doubling Cape 
Cod, came into Buzzard's Bay. Giving to an island, which the 
Indians called Cuttyhunk, the name of his queen, Elizabeth, he 
prepared to leave a colony. When the time for the departure of 
the vessel came, the m.en lost heart, and the fifth attempt at 
colonization also proved a failure. 







Wid.A.-, P.pe 




i<S',';:'',4'/"'"'ffi>' 



^■""^iw-' 



SttAnthon^ 

"V 1 CrevecQ 



ston 
mouth 



c ^ ^'^j^STNewport 

*''*^'nsterdam 



Jamestown^^*"/'^''^^ B^y 



ROANOKC IS. 



'O/Y/J^^^O^'A 



Mobile 



Port Ro^al 
iFtXaroline 
»^t. Augustine 



oCUANAKANI 



JAMAICA 



EARLY DISCOVERIES. 
EXPLORATIONS, 

AND 

SETTLEMENTS. 



SOUTH SEA 



SOUTH 



AMERICA 



CHRONOLOGY. 23 



CHRONOLOGY. 

1000. Vinland — Discovered by Leif Ericson. 

1450. Invention of Printing, about this date. 

1453. Constantinople — Captured by the Turks. 

1479. Spain — Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. 

1483. France — Reign of Charles VIII. 

1485. England — Reign of Henry VII. 

1492. West Indies — Discovered by Columbus, October 21, N. S. 

1497. Cape Breton — Discovered by Cabot, June 24. 

Good Hope — Voyage around, by Da Gama, November 19. 

1498. Atlantic Coast — Explored by Cabot. 
Trinidad — Discovered by Columbus, July 31. 
France — Reign of Louis XII. 

1509. England — Reign of Henry VIII. 

1513. Florida — Discovered by Ponce de Leon, March 27. 

South Sea — Discovered by Balboa, September 25. 
1515 France — Reign of Francis I. 
1516. Spain — Reign of Charles I. 

1520. Straits of Magellan — Traversed by Magellan, November 2I 
1524. Atlantic Coast — Explored by Verrazano. 
1534. St. Lawrence — Explored by Cartier. 
1539 to 1542. Southern States — Explored by De Soto. 
1541. Quebec — Attempted settlement by Cartier. 
1547. England — Reign of Edward VI. 

France — Reign of Henry II. 
1553. England — Reign of Mary. 
1556. Spain— Reign of Phihp II. 

1558. England — Reign of Elizabeth. 

1559. France — Reign of Francis II. 

1560. France — Reign of Charles IX. 

1562. Port Royal — Attempted settlement by Ribault. 

1564. Florida — Attempted settlement by Laudonniere. 

1565. Florida — Settlement by Menendez. 
1574. France — Reign of Henry III. 

1578. Labrador — Attempted settlement by Frobisher. 

1579. Pacific Coast — Explored by Sir Francis Drake. 
1583. Newfoundland — Attempted settlement by Gilbert. 
1585. Roanoke Island — Attempted settlement by Raleigh. 
1587. Roanoke Island — Attempted settlement by Raleigh. 
1589. France — Reign of Henry IV. 

1598. Spain — Reign of Philip III. 

1602. Elizabeth Island — Attempted settlement by Gosnold. 

1603. England — Reign of James I. 



13lacftboarD anal^siiis^ 



SETTLE- 
MENTS 



Virginia Company 



Virginia 



Plymouth 



Massachusetts Bay 

New Hampshire 

Connecticut . . 
Rhode Island . 

New York . . . 



Maryland . . . 
Delaw^are . . . . 
New Jersey . . 

The Carolinas . 



Georgia . . . , 
Pennsylvania 



The Grant by James T. 
Southern or London Company. 
Northern or Plymouth Company. 

Settlement at Jamestown. 
Hardships from Famine and Indians. 
John Smith the Leader. 

The English Separatists. 
Voyage of the Mayflower. 
Hardships from Famine. 

The English Puritans. 
Settlement at Salem. 
The Massachusetts Bay Company. 

( Grant to Mason and Gorges. 

J Settlements at Dover and Ports- 

( mouth. 

5 Settlements on the Connecticut. 
I Settlement at New Haven. 

( Roger Williams Settles Providence. 
I Settlement at Aquidneck. 

( Henry Hudson's Discovery. 
■} History of New Netherland. 
I The English Colony. 

( Grant to Lord Baltimore. 
I Settlement at St. Mary's. 

r Settled by the Swedes. 

■< Captured by the Dutch and by the 

( English. 

5 Grant to Berkeley and Carteret. 
I Settlement at Elizabethtown. 

C Settlements at Albemarle and 
} Charleston. 

j Grant to Eight Proprietors. 
( The Colony Divided. 

5 Grant to Oglethorpe. 
I Settlement at Savannah. 

( Grant to William Penn. 

■< Settlement at Philadelphia. 

(The "Frame of Government." 




SECTION II. 

PERMANENT SETTLEMENTS. 1606-1733. 



CHAPTER V. 



ORGANIZED MOVEMENTS. 



31. The Condition of England. — The beginning of the seventeenth 
century marked a new epoch in the history of England. The 
period of the Reformation was over, and England had taken her 
place as the great Protestant nation of the world. The Revival of 
Learning had had its day, and England was beginning to become 
known as one of the great nations of letters. The wars with Spain 
were at an end for a time, and England was laying the foundation 
of her future commercial supremacy. The water route to India 
had proved a valuable blessing, and England no longer needed to 
send out explorations to seek new passages to the rich countries 
of the East. The maddening eagerness to secure wealth by the 
mining of gold was lessening as the fact was becoming apparent 
that gold was not easy to find. The time was at hand when mer- 
chants would begin to recognize the fact that the mother country 
had commercial interests in forming colonies. The day was com- 
ing when philanthropic citizens would seek to establish places 
of refuge for the oppressed and the poor that lived in the over- 
crowded cities of England. The conditions were ready for the 
successful establishment of colonies. 

32. The Company. — Gosnold was not discouraged by his unsuc- 
cessful attempt at settlement within the limits of Virginia, and he 
returned to England with increased enthusiasm to try again. He 
considered that the cause of the failure of all the previous expe- 



26 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



[1606 



ditions lay in the lack of united action. He began at once to urge 
the merchants of his acquaintance to form a company for the 
purpose of planting colonies in America. There were a few men 
in England who had an enthusiasm for colonization like that of 
Gilbert and Raleigh. Among them were Edward Maria Wing- 
field, Robert Hunt, John Smith, Sir Ferdinando Gorges, Sir John 
Popham, and Richard Hakluyt. These men made application to 
King James for a charter to authorize them to form a company 
to make settlements in Virginia. The king granted their request, 
and issued the first colonial charter in 1606. 

33. The Grant. — By this charter the company was divided; the 
members who were in and around London were to make the 

First or Southern Company of Vir- 
ginia; those merchants and gentlemen 
who had their headquarters at Plymouth, 
England, were to form the Second or 
Northern Company of Virginia. To 
these companies was assigned all the 
land between Cape Fear, or the 34th 
parallel of latitude, and the St. Croix 
River, or the 45th parallel. The land 



John Smith begins the preface to 
his " Generall Historie " with the fol- 
lowing paragraph : " This plaine His- 
torie humbly sheweth the truth; that 
our most royall King lames hath place 
and opportunitie to enlarge his ancient 
Dominions without wronging any; 
(which is a condition most agreeable 
to his most iust and pious resolutions) : 
and the Prince his Highness may see 
where to plant new colonies. The 
gaining Prouinces addeth to the Kings 
Crown : But the reducing Heathen 
people to civilitie and true Religion, 
bringeth honour to the King of Hea- 
uen. If his Princely wisedome and 
powerfuU hand, renowned through the 
world for admirable gouernment, please 
but to set these new Estates unto order ; 
their composure will be singular; the 
counsell of divers is confused; the 
generall Stocke is consumed; nothing 
but the touch of the Kings sacred hand 
can erect a Monarchy." 



granted was to extend back a distance 



of one hundred miles from the coast 
and was to belong entirely to these two 
companies. The territory south of the 
Rappahannock, or parallel 38°, was 
granted to the London Company; that 
north of New York City, or parallel 
41°, to the Plymouth Company. The 
land between the two territories, from 
parallel 38° to parallel 41°, was to be common property, except 
that neither company should make settlement within one hundred 
miles of the other. 

34. The Conditions. — Many important rights were granted to 
these companies ; very few to the colonists whom they should 
send. The entire control of the colonies to be formed rested with 
the companies in England ; even the local government was in the 
hands of a council appointed from England. The king required 



1606-1635] ORGANIZED MOVEMENTS. 2*] 

from the companies that they should render due homage to him. 
He demanded of them, as rent, one-fifth of all the gold and silver 
mined, and one-fifteenth of all the copper. The only promise 
made to the emigrants was that they and their descendants should 
not cease to be Englishmen. Such were the terms of the " first 
written charter of a permanent American colony;" simply the 
charter of a mercantile corporation. 

35. The Southern Company. — The Southern Company succeeded 
in making but one settlement, that of Jamestown, in 1607 (1138). 
In 1609, the company received a second charter granting land 
further north, as far as Philadelphia, or the 40th parallel, and west 
to the "■ South Sea." In a few other respects, the conditions were 
changed by this charter, as well as by the third charter of 1612. 
In 1624, the company dissolved, and the settlement reverted to 
the king, as a royal colony. 

36. The Northern Company. — The Northern Company failed in all 
its attempts to form a colony. The most notable effort was made 
under the special direction of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, in 1607. One 
hundred and twenty immigrants, under the lead of George Popham, 
arrived at the mouth of the Kennebec River, and began a settlement, 
which they called St. George. The winter proved very severe, and, 
upon the death of the leader, the " Popham Colony " abandoned 
the plantation and returned to England. In 1620, the company 
was succeeded by the Council of Plymouth for New England, which 
received land further south, as far as Philadelphia, and north to the 
parallel of 48°, or the northern boundary of New Brunswick, and 
west to the " South Sea." This council also failed in its purpose, 
and, in 1635, the members divided the land among themselves and 
thus surrendered their company rights. Though the results seem so 
meagre, the first steps had been taken, and the work of coloni- 
zation went steadily on, without regard to the companies. New 
charters were granted, and within eighty years twelve English 
colonies lined the coast from the 32d to the 45th parallel oi 
latitude. 




Bow ftrtd AfrOVk 



2d> 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES, 



[1606 



CHAPTER VI. 



VIRGINIA. 



37. The Fleet. — The London Company was more vigorous thaii 
the Plymouth, and had its colonists on the way before the 

close of the year 1606. 
The leaders of the com- 
pany had little difficulty in 
finding volunteers, and 
the three vessels fitted 
out were ready to sail in 
December. The contrast 
»i between the "Susan Con- 
stant," the largest vessel 
:• of the fleet, and an ocean 
'" greyhound of to-day is 
J very great. The *' Con- 
stant " was of one hun- 
] dred tons' burden, while 
the "Good Speed" carried 
but forty tons, and the 
little pinnace " Discovery," 
twenty. The voyagers, 
about one hundred in num- 
ber, were brave men to un- 
dertake the journey, which 
would occupy about four 
months, over seas so sel- 
dom traversed. The fleet 
sailed from London, December 19th, 1606, and took the southern 
course, via the West Indies. Captain Christopher Newport was 
in command, and among the party were Gosnold, Smith, and 
Wingfield. A storm prevented them from landing on Roanoke 
Island, as they had intended, and drove them northward as far as 
Chesapeake Bay. 




Ruins of the Settlement at Jamestown, Va. 



1607] 



VIRGINIA, 



29 




38. Land Reached.- The refuge which they found in this bay 

proved of so much ''comfort" to them, 

after the severity of the storm, that the 

name of Point Comfort was given to the 

land. As the vessels passed into the bay, 

the leaders named the capes on either 

side in honor of the two sons of King 

James, and Cape Henry and Cape Charles 

they are still called. Soon the fleet started 

up the beautiful river, which they termed 

the James, and a spot for the town was 

chosen on its banks. May 13th, 1607, the 

colonists landed, and at once began to 

lay the foundations of Jamestown. The 

place selected was not suitable for a col- 
ony, and to-day the ruins of a church are 

all that mark its site and designate the spot where the first perma- 
nent English settlement was made. 

39. The Men. — The London Com- 
pany was a body of merchants united 
mainly for the sake of gain. If the 
colony which they sent out should bring 
back gold in abundance, or should find 
a Northwest Passage, it would be con- 
sidered a successful adventure. No 
special plans were formed to establish 
a farming community, nor were ar- 
rangements made whereby the colo- 
nists could obtain the necessary food. 
** Nobles, gentlemen, carpenters, labor- 
ers, boys," were among the voyagers, 
but no women. The nobles and gentle- 
men were unaccustomed to labor with 
their hands. The carpenters, laborers, 
and boys could dig for gold, and search 

for precious stones, but they could not furnish provisions. 

The leaders were not all wise, and their mistakes were often 

very serious. The members of the council had been chosen by 



John Smith's life covered the pe- 
riod from 1580 to 1631. His own ac- 
count of his hfe previous to the year 
1604 makes a story more exciting and 
apparently impossible than any fic- 
tion. During the six years beginning 
with 1506, he travelled in Holland, 
Scotland, France, Italy, Egypt, Hun- 
gary, Germany, and Prussia, until he , 
joined an expedition against the Turks. 
In the Turkish war he performed 
many deeds of great valor, but was 
captured in 1602. After suffering cruel 
treatment as a slave by Turks, Moors, 
and Tartars, he finally made his escape, 
nnd, travelling alone through Muscovy, 
Hungary, and Austria, he arrived in 
Leipsic, in December, 1603. His trip 
from here back to England was most 
round-about, and on reaching home he 
immediately entered heartily into the 
idea of colonizing Virginia. 



30 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



[1607 




the company (H 34) before the fleet sailed from England. The 
appointments were kept secret, however, and the names of the 

seven had been placed in a sealed 
box. When this box was opened 
after the arrival, in accordance 
with directions, it was found that 
Wingfield was made president, and 
that Gosnold, Smith, Newport, Rat- 
cliffe, Martin, and Kendall, together 
with the president, composed the 
council. Had the president and 
all the council possessed the abil- 
ity and the strength of character 
of Smith and Gosnold, the ear- 
ly period of the colony might 
Captain John Smith. ^^vc been more prosperous than 

(From the history of Virginia, by Captain John Smith.) [^ WaS. 

40. First Days. — The colonists had found a home and at once 
began to prepare places in which to 
live. Tents were used, and in the 
warm days of late spring but little 
covering was needed more than roofs 
of boughs to keep off sun and rain. 
A church was built, and the time 
was well spent in cutting trees, saw- 
ing logs and erecting houses. All 
things seemed prosperous, though the 
colony was in serious danger of 
sudden attacks from the Indians. A 
jealous fear of Smith appeared in 
the council, and he was threatened 
with the disgrace of being sent back 
to England. He demanded a trial 
in Virginia, and obtaining it was 
quickly acquitted of all charges. The 
military leader was thus saved to the 
colony, and the task of securing protection from the Indians was 
in safe hands. 



Captain Smith entertained the 
same opinion with regard to the neces- 
sity of finding a passage through the 
continent, or a new route to India, as 
did most of the discoverers of that 
time. Soon after the arrival of the 
colonists at Jamestown, Smith started 
out on an exploring tour up the 
Chickahominy River. He did not find 
the Pacific Ocean, but instead was 
captured by the Indians. A few years 
later he made an expedition up the 
Chesapeake Bay, with the same pur- 
pose in view, but again he failed. 
After one more trial he seems to have 
abandoned his attempts to find what 
has since received the name of the 
Northwest Passage. The rest of the 
explorations which he made, not only 
in Chesapeake Bay, but also along the 
Atlantic coast, resulted in the forma- 
tion of maps which, though of no 
value to-day, were especially helpful 
to the seafaring men of the early part 
of the seventeenth century. 



.^07] 



VIRGINIA. 



31 



41. The First Summer. — The new-comers arrived during the beau- 
tiful month of May, and for a few weeks all the immigrants were 
charmed with this land of flowers in its season of beauty. Soon, 
however, the heat of summer, to which they were unaccustomed, 
and the malaria that arose from the marshy banks of the James, 
began to cause fatal sicknesses among them. An epidemic of 
disease followed, and this, together with a scarcity of food, nearly 
carried away the whole colony. Those who succeeded in escaping 
the disease were too few to care properly for the sick, and it was 
almost impossible to obtain decent burial for those who died. 
About fifty, or nearly one-half of the settlement, perished, and 
among them the leading spirit of the colony, Bartholomew Gos- 
nold. The president was unable to meet the terrible emergency, 
and the strength and ability of John Smith alone carried the colony 
along until the frosts of the 
autumn checked the disease. 
Lack of food caused hardship 
during the winter, but the aw- 
ful sickness was over at last. 

42. Pocahontas. — Captain John 
Smith was not only a soldier 
and statesman, but also an au- 
thor, and from his writings 
much of the information con- 
cerning early Virginia has been 
obtained. He tells a story of 
an expedition which he made 
up the James River, and the 
way in which he was separated 
from his companions. He re- 
counts that he was captured by 
the Indians and carried before 
their chief, Pow'hatan. After a time he was condemned to death, 
and was only rescued because of the prayers of Pocahontas, the 
daughter of the Indian emperor. His life was saved, and after 
spending the winter with the Indians, he reached Jamestown at a 
time when his presence was much needed. 

Soon after, as the warm weather came on, the colonists feared that 




Pocahontas. 
(After an old anonymous print.) 



I609-I6IO] 



VIRGINIA. 



33 



the disasters of the preceding summer were to be repeated. But 
a company of Indians arrived, under the command of Pocahontas, 
and brought an abundance of food. The good-will of the Indian 
girl is proved by this act, and she thus saved the lives of many 
of the colonists. 

43. The Bermudas. — The little colony, though it had passed 
through the terrible epidemic, and though the Indians seemed 
to be more friendly, was still in serious danger of failure. The 
colonists were not ready to work ; they were eager for adven- 
ture ; they were crazed to search for gold ; they had no love 
for the soil ; they had no true homes ; they were more ready to 
return than to stay. Just at this time, the king granted the 
second charter to the London Company (If 35), and Sir Thomas 
West, Lord Delaware, was appointed the new governor. 

In May, 1609, a fleet of nine vessels, with needed supplies and 
a large number of colonists, this time including women and chil- 
dren, sailed from England. Disaster 
still followed the fortunes of the Lon- 
don Company, the fleet encountering 
a severe storm when nearly at the end 
of the voyage. One vessel was lost, 
and the flag-ship, the " Sea Venture," 
containing the lieutenant-governor, Sir 
Thomas Gates, and the admiral. Sir 
George Somers, was separated from the 
other vessels and finally wrecked on 
the Bermuda Islands. The passengers 
reached land safely and spent a very 
enjoyable nine months on this island, 
which seemed to them a perfect paradise. 
At length, in May, 1610, having built 
two small vessels from the wreck of the 
" Sea Venture," they sailed again, reach- 
ing Virginia in about a fortnight. 

44. The Despair. — While the leaders of the new party were 
spending their time on the islands in the middle of the Atlantic, 
disaster and ruin were coming fast to the colonists at Jamestown. 
The seven vessels that survived the storm came into the Chesa- 

3 



Pocahontas continued to aid the 
colonists for many years after she saved 
the life of John Smith. When the 
Indian princess had reached the age 
of eighteen the people of Jamestown 
became angry with Powhatan, the 
emperor, and stole Pocahontas, carry- 
ing her away as a prisoner. She 
remained at Jamestown as a surety 
of her father's good conduct, and here 
an Englishman, named John Rolfe, 
fell in love with her. He offered to 
marry the girl and won the consent 
of the " princess " as well as that of 
the emperor. Pocahontas was bap- 
tized in the little church at Jamestown 
and then married under the name of 
Rebecca. On visiting England a few 
years later she received a very cordial 
welcome, and her modesty and correct 
behavior brought her praise on every 
hand. She died from an attack of 
small-pox, leaving a son, whose de- 
scendants have been among the leaders 
of the colony of Virginia. 



34 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1610-1619 



peake with scanty supplies, and with no leaders. Confusion 
followed, and again the struggle began between those willing to 
perform the necessary labor and the sluggards. Smith was com- 
pelled to return to England, broken in health, and his advice 
and judgment were lost to the colony. When Gates, the lieu- 
tenant-governor, arrived from the Bermudas, he found a company 
nearly famished from hunger, and the settlement passing through 
a period of suffering almost as severe as that of the first sum- 
mer. He and his party were able to bring them no aid, and 
despair entered their hearts at the terrible condition of affairs. 
Gates and Somers decided to give up the colony, and if possible 
return to England with the people whom disease had not yet de- 
stroyed. They abandoned the town, and with four vessels started 
on the homeward voyage on the seventh of June, 1610. 

45. Lord Delaware. — The colony was not destined to such a 

fate, however, and the sorrowful home 
voyage was not to last long. On the 
ninth of June, before the fleet had 
sailed out of the James River, it met 
three vessels from England, under com- 
mand of the governor, Lord Dela- 
ware. These vessels were just in time,' 
bringing a supply of provisions suffi- 
cient to last the colony a whole year. 
With great joy the crowd of famine- 
stricken, weary, and spiritless colonists 
returned to their abandoned village, and 
the colony of Virginia was saved from 
utter ruin and a fate like that of Roa- 
noke Island. Fortunate also was the 

colony, at last, in its leader, and from this moment the permanency 
of the settlement was assured. 

46. The First Assembly. — Lord Delaware did not remain gov- 
ernor long, and there was a succession of rulers until, in 1619, 
George Yeardley arrived, for the second time governor-general 
of Virginia. He brought with him papers that established the 
first republic on this continent. He summoned a General As- 
sembly, which was to be «jlected by the people, and every 



Thomas West succeeded his fa- 
ther as Lord Delaware in 1602, and 
in 1609 was appointed governor and 
captain-general of Virginia. " His 
coming revived the courage of the col- 
onists, who had been reduced almost 
to despair, owing to privation and 
misgovernment, and his judicious and 
energetic management soon restored 
order and industry. Being ill, in 
March, i6ri, he embarked for Nevis 
in the West Indies; but having been 
driven north by opposing winds, the 
party entered the mouth of a large 
river, called by the natives, Chicko- 
hocki, but wliich received the name of 
Delaware in his honor." (Appleton's 
Cyclopaedia of American Biography) 
Lord Delaware died at sea, in 1618, 
on a second voyage to America. 



l6l9] PLYMOUTH. 35 

freeman was entitled to vote for the burgesses. On July 30th, 
the '* first legislative body that ever sat in America assembled at 
Jamestown," and two burgesses from each of the eleven boroughs 
were chosen to this popular assembly. Virginia was now no 
longer limited to the settlement at Jamestown, as ten other 
boroughs sent their representatives to this legislature. Two years 
afterwards a new charter from the king granted a full legal right 
to this body, and provided that no orders from England should 
** bind the said colony unless ratified in the General Assem- 
blies." From 16 19 to the present day the colony, and later 
the State, of Virginia has had a free government, at all times 
making its own laws. 



CHAPTER VII. 

PLYMOUTH. 

47. The Reformation. — The sixteenth century has a distinctive 
place in history as the age of the Reformation. The leading 
states of Europe, at the time of Columbus's discovery, were 
Christian nations acknowledging the Pope of Rome as the Head 
of the Church. One of the results of the Revival of Learning 
that followed the fall of Constantinople (1453) was the growth of 
individual thought. Men like Luther in Germany, and Calvin in 
France, began to disagree with the Roman Church in some of its 
doctrines and customs. Protesting against what seemed to them 
errors, they received the name of Protestants. In England the 
Protestant faith grew rapidly, so that in 1534 the nation withdrew 
its allegiance from Pope Clement VII. 

48. The Puritans. — From the time of Henry VIH., the English 
people as a nation have continued to hold the Protestant faith, 
with the exception of the few years under Queen Mary. When 
Elizabeth was seated on the throne, the struggle between Catholics 
and Protestants was practically ended. The Church of England 
was established, and the larger part of the people accepted their 
ruler as the supreme authority in religious as well as civil 



36 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



[1603 



matters. But the influence of Calvin, the French Huguenots, 
and the Netherlanders was felt in England as well as upon the 
continent, and before EHzabeth's reign came to a close there was 
a large and growing number of Puritans, who desired, as they said, 
to purify the Church. At the beginning of the reign of James I., 
in 1603, the Puritans were a body of earnest men, determined to 
change the Church of England in many respects, and make it 
accord more closely with their views. 




The " Mayflower. 



49. The Separatists. — Laws were passed against the Puritans during 
the reign of Elizabeth, and punishments were inflicted upon those 
who refused either to attend church or to comply with its ordi- 
nances. The larger part of the Puritans, believing that they would 
eventually become sufficiently strong, desired to remain in the 
Church and "purify" it from within. These were called Non- 
Conformists, continuing to attend church, but not conforming to 
all the church rites. A small number of the Puritans withdrew 
from the Church entirely and met together to worship by them- 
selves. These people planned to form a new church, which should 
be in accordance with their ideas, and therefore have received 
the name of Separatists or Independents. They were Puritans 
who carried their opposition to the Church of England to a 



i6o7-i62oJ 



PLYMOUTH. 



37 



greater extent than did the Non- Conformists, and who therefore 
were persecuted more severely. 

50. The Pilgrims. — One band of the Separatists hved in and near 
Scrooby, a village in Nottinghamshire on the main road between 
London and York. Persecuted for reli- 
gion's sake, they determined to become 
exiles rather than abandon their faith. 
They made an attempt to flee to Hol- 
land in 1607, and, though they were 
prevented that year, they succeeded in 
reaching Amsterdam, after much suffer- 
ing, in i6o8. Journeying to Leyden 
the next year, the Pilgrims, as they 
were now called, remained there for 
eleven years. They had an opportunity 
to become acquainted with the church, 
the free schools, the mode of thought, 
and the form of free government of 
the Dutch. Their numbers continually 
grew, until in 1620 there were several 
hundred attendants . at the Leyden 



Bradford's History. — " When, by 
the travail and diligence of some godly 
and zealous preachers, and God's bless- 
ing on their labors, as in other places 
of the land, so in the north parts, many 
became enlightened by the word of 
God, and had their ignorance and sins 
discovered by the word of God's grace, 
and began, by his grace, to reform 
their lives and make conscience of 
their ways, the work of God was no 
sooner manifest in them, but presently 
they were both scoifed and scorned 
by the profane multitude, and the 
ministei s urged with the yoke of sub- 
scription, or else must be silenced; 
and the poor people were so vexed 
with apparators and pursuivants and 
the Commission Courts, as truly their 
affliction was not small. ... So many, 
therefore, of these professors as saw 
the evil of these things in these parts, 
and whose hearts the Lord had touched 
with heavenly zeal for his truth, they 
shook off this yoke of antichristian 
bondage, and, as the Lord's free people 
joined themselves, (by a covenant of 
the Lord,) into a church estate, in the 
fellowship of the gospel, to walk in all 
his ways, made known, or to be made 
known unto them, according to their 
best endeavors, whatever it would cost 
them. And that it cost them much 
pains, trouble, sorrow, affliction, and 
persecution, and expense of their es- 
tates, etc., this ensuing history will 
declare." 



Church, having John Robinson as their 
pastor. 

51. The Exile. — The Pilgrims were 
lovers of home, though they had been 
compelled to flee to foreign shores. 
They were of the middle class of Eng- 
lishmen, hardy farmers, and skilled 
mechanics. They were anxious that 
their children should be English and 
not Dutch, and that they should always love and be loyal to old 
England. It thus happened that, after a few years, a strong desire 
sprang up among the Pilgrims to establish a colony in the English 
possessions in America. Other reasons were given for the intended 
emigration, among them being the wish to Christianize the Indians. 
Attempts were accordingly made to obtain the needed means, and 
at length arrangements were entered into with the London Com- 
pany (II 35). This company was to provide the necessary supplies 



38 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



[1620 



and vessels, and was to receive from the Pilgrims a large pro- 
portion of the profits. 




52. The "Mayflower." — When the time for departure came, it was 
found that vessels had been provided for much less than half of the 

Leyden colony. Pastor Robinson re- 
mained with the majority, and Elder 
Brewster accompanied the Pilgrims, to 
act as pastor until those left in Leyden 
should follow the first voyagers. On 
the morning of July 22d, 1620, the 
** Speedwell " left Delft-haven, the port 
of Leyden, with a small number of 
these exiles, parting from friends and 
home for an unknown land. At South- 
ampton, England, they were joined by 
the " Mayflower," and after two attempts 
at starting, the " Speedwell " was de- 
clared unseaworthy, and they put back 
September 6th, 1620, one hundred and 
and children, sailed from Plymouth, a 



The Bradford Manuscript. — Gov- 
ernor Bradford wrote a history of tlie 
settlement at Plymouth, which has re- 
mained in manuscript, in his hand- 
writing;, to this day. About the time 
of the Revolution this manuscript dis- 
appeared. Nearly seventy-five years 
afterward it was discovered in the 
library of tlie Bishop of London By 
a decree of the Consistorial and Epis- 
copal Court in London, the manuscript 
has been presented to the State of 
Massachusetts, through Hon. Thomas 
F. Bayard, our late Ambassador to the 
Court of Saint James. It was received 
by the Governor on May 26th, 1897, 
in presence of the Massachusetts Sen- 
ate and House of Representatives. 
The document will be kept in the 
State Library. 



rnto the port of Plymouth, 
one persons, men, women, 



l620] 



PLYMOUTH, 



39 



band destined to establish the second permanent EngHsh colony on 
the coast of America. 

53. The Voyage. — The *' Mayflower," a vessel of i8o tons, was very 
small for such a voyage; the autumn 
of the year was not suitable for a trip 
across the Atlantic; the sailors were 
unacquainted with the route; at the 
present time such a journey would be 
deemed foolhardy. The voyage was 
stormy, and sixty-three days passed 
before America was reached. The in- 
tention had been to reach some point 
on the coast of New Jersey, near the 
mouth of the Hudson, but the captain 
of the *' Mayflower," for some reason, 
brought the vessel into the harbor of 
Provincetown, at the extreme end of 
Cape Cod. After a month of explora- 
tion, a party sent out from the vessel 
landed at Plymouth, December iith. 
This is the date according to the old 
style of reckoning, and December 21st, 
1620, N. S. (New Style), is the day 
celebrated as Forefathers' Day. 

54. The Compact. — While the Pilgrims were still in Province- 
town Harbor, a meeting was held, November nth, in the cabin of 
the " Mayflower." They had arrived at land which was not under 
the control of the London Company, and some were thought " not 
well affected to unity and concord." A compact was drawn up, 
and solemnly agreed to by all the men, forty-one in number, 
which was to be the fundamental law of the government. (Ap- 
pendix A.) ** Due submission and obedience " were promised, 
and John Carver was chosen governor. Bancroft calls this occa- 
sion the '' birth of popular constitutional liberty." 

55. The First Winter. — Though Plymouth is much farther south 
than either Scrooby or Leyden, yet the newly arrived immigrants 
found the winter there much more severe. To the Pilgrims, suffer- 
ing from the extreme cold, and lacking suflicient nourishing food, 



Delft-Haven. — The company of 
Pilgrims that set sail from Delft-haven, 
on July 22(1, 1620, left a large company 
of their friends who would willingly 
have gone with them. Bradford iiim- 
self tells the story of the parting: 
"That night was spent with little 
sleepe by ye most, but with friendly 
entertainmente & christian discourse 
and other reall expressions of true 
christian love. The next day, the wind 
being faire, they wente aborde, and 
their friends with them, where truly dol- 
f ull was ye sight of that sade and mourn- 
full parting; to see what sighs and 
sobbs and praires did sound amongst 
them, what tears did gush from every 
eye, & pithy speeches peirst each harte ; 
that sundry of ye Dutch strangers yt 
stood on ye key as spectators, could not 
refraine from tears. , . . their Reved. 
pastor falling downe on his knees, . . . 
with watrie cheeks commended them 
with most fervente praiers to the Lord 
and his blessing. And then with 
mutuall imbrases and manly tears, 
they tooke their leaves one of another; 
which proved to be ye last leave to 
many of them." 



40 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



fl620 



the first season proved a terrible ordeal. Just as the first summer 

proved a fatal one to the settlers at 
Jamestown, so during these winter 
months one half, of the Plymouth col- 
ony perished. Among those who died 
was John Carver, the governor, and 
his responsible position then came to 
William Bradford, who held the office 
most of the time until his death, thirty- 
seven years afterwards. 

William Brewster, the elder, was an- 
other man of great importance in the 
infant colony, and to him much of the 
success of Plymouth was due. The 
colonists were much disturbed by fears 
of the Indians, but no attack was made 
upon the settlement during its earlier 
years. This was partly due to the fact 
that a pestilence had recently caused 
the death of very many of the neigh- 
boring Indians, but perhaps even more 
to the dread that they had of Myles 
Standish, who had command of the 
military forces. With such men as 

Bradford, Brewster, Standish, and Dr. Fuller, it was almost certain 

that the colony would succeed. 



The Julian calendar was used 
throughout Europe for many centuries. 
This was based on the supposition that 
the year was 2^5% ^^V^ long, and 
therefore it made every year 365 days 
except the fourth or " leap year " which 
contained 366 days. During the six- 
teenth century time was found to have 
been incorrectly kept, and the reckon- 
ing to be ten days behind the correct 
time. The Gregorian calendar, named 
in honor of Pope Gregory Xlll., who 
ordered the reform, was adopted. 
Ten was added to the commonly ac- 
cepted day of the month, and it was 
agreed that in the future the years that 
are divisible by 100 should not be leap 
years unless they are divisible by 400. 
Thus Dec. nth, 1620, Old Style, be- 
comes Dec. 2ist, 1620, New Style, by 
adding the necessary ten days. The year 
1600 was divisible by 400, and therefore 
that year was a leap year by the new 
calendar. The year 1500 was not div- 
isible by 400, that year should not have 
been of 366 days, and therefore during 
the century before it the error was only 
nine days. Oct. 12th, 1492, O. S., is 
Oct. 2ist, 1492, N. S. Feb. nth, 1732, 
O. S., becomes Feb. 22d, 1732, N. S., 
inasmuch as the error was increased 
one day by the year 1700, and eleven 
days should be added. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 



56. The Later Puritans. — The body of Puritan Non-Conformists 
in England grew rapidly during the years that the Pilgrims spent 
in Holland. The struggle that they had begun with the king and 
the Church of England increased as the years went by. It was 
natural that the Puritans, opposed as they were to the religious 



I 623-1 628] 



MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 



41 




Governor Winthrop. 

(From a painting in the State House at 
Boston, attributed to Vai.dyke.) 



supremacy of the king, should object 

to the civil despotism which King 

James was exercising. When 

Charles I. succeeded his father in 

1625 the contest had become a civil 

one to a great extent, and in a few 

years it resulted in a civil war. Then 

the Puritans had a double reason for 

forming a colony in America, — to 

provide a home where they might 

warship as they pleased, and also to 

obtain a place of refuge in case the 

king should be victorious in the 

struggle, 

57. The Fishing Station. — In 1623, an attempt was made to 

establish a fishing colony at Cape Ann, the site of the present 

city of Gloucester. After a struggle 
between Plymouth fishermen and others 
from Dorchester, England, a little set- 
tlement was started, over which Roger 
Conant was made governor in 1625. 
The Rev. John White, of Dorchester, 
a Non-Conforming Puritan, was deeply 
interested in this colony, and hoped 
that something besides mere money 
gain might come from it. This ex- 
periment proved a failure, as the land 
was found unsuitable for cultivation, 
but Conant was unwilling to abandon 
the attempt to form a colony, and, 
in 1626, with at least fourteen com- 
panions, he removed to Naumkeag and 
made a settlement there. Mr. White 
wrote him encouragingly, and prom- 
ised to send supplies and reinforce- 
ments, if he would hold the place. 
This Conant agreed to do, and the 

little colony waited patiently two years for the promised aid. 



Endicott's Charter begins as fol- 
lows : "Charles by the grace 
OF God King of England Scodand 
ffrannce and Ireland Defender of the 
faith &c. ; To all to whome these 
present shall come Greetinge ; Where- 
Ass our most deare and royall ffather 
kinge James of blessed memory . . . 
hath given and graunted unto the Coun- 
cill established at Plymouth in the 
County of Devon for the plantinge . . . 
of newe England in America, ... all 
that parte of America lyeinge and beinge 
in breadth from forty degrees of north- 
erly latitude ... to forty-eight degrees 
of the said northerly latitude . . . a^td 
IVhereass the said Councill . . . haue 
by theire deeds . . . graunted ... to 
(several men, including John Endicott) 
... all that parte of newe England . . . 
which lies . . . betweene a greate river 
their comonly called . . . merriemack 
and a certaine other river there, called 
Charles River, being in the bottom of 
a certen bay there comonly called Mas- 
sachusetts, . . . Now Knoive ye that 
we . . . doe graunte and confirme, unto 
the i,aid (gentlemen) ... all the said 
parte of newe England in America. 



42 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1628-1629 




First Church at Salem. Built 1634. 



58. The Salem Immigration. — In 1628, White fulfilled his promise, 
and a new company was formed, which purchased land from the 

Council of Plymouth (1136). This 
grant extended from three miles 
south of the Charles River to three 
miles north of the Merrimac. Sep- 
tember 13th, 1628, Gov. John Endi- 
cott, accompanied by about one 
hundred people, landed at Naum- 
keag, which, the next year, received 
the name of Salem. Cordially wel- 
comed by Conant and his followers, 
Endicott soon had his settlement 
under way, and the Massachusetts 
Bay colony was fairly begun. 

59. The Massachusetts Bay Com- 
pany. — The Dorchester Company 
prospered during the year 1628, and early in the next year a royal 
charter was obtained from King Charles. "The Governor and Com- 
pany of the Massachusetts Bay in New 
England " was established, and jurisdic- 
tion was granted to this trading company 
over the land previously purchased from 
the Council of Plymouth. In the spring 
of 1629, a fleet sailed from England 
carrying two hundred settlers for the 
little colony at Naumkeag, among them 
being Rev. John Higginson and Rev. 
John Skclton, the first ministers of the 
Salem Church. This company landed 
during the latter portion of June, and 
more than doubled the number of the 
settlement at Salem as well as of a 
smaller one at Charlestown. 

60. Settlement of Boston. — In the au- 
tumn of 1629, the Massachusetts Bay 
Company took an unheard of step in deciding to move their head- 
quarters from England to the colony. They voted that the com- 



Salem First Church. — When, in 
July, 1629, the little settlement at Salem 
organized the first Protestant church 
in America hy electing their pastor 
and teacher, the meeting was probably 
held in the open air. Where meetings 
were held during the next few years is 
not known, but in 1634 it was decided 
to build a meeting-house. This proved 
to be a building 25 by 20 feet, with a 
gallery at one end. In this church it 
is supposed that Roger Williams and 
Hugh Peters preached. The building 
was not finished for some years, and for 
a while oiled paper was used in place 
of glass in the windows. Four other 
buildings have been used by this church 
society since the time of this small 
and unpretending edifice, but the old 
church still stands, a monument to the 
heroism of those Puritans who were 
willing to exchange the cathedrals of 
England for such structures as this. 



I 629-1 649] 



MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 



43 



Governor "Winthrop was born in 
1588. Wlien the Massachusetts Bay 
Colony decided to remove the colony 
and to carry the charter and all things 
necessary for the government to Amer- 
ica, Governor Craddock resigned and 
the Company chose John Winthrop in 
his place. He arrived in 1630, and after 
a short stay in Salem and Charlestown 
he chose Trimount for his home, and, 
calling it Boston, he made it the seat 
of government. With the exception of 
one or two short intervals, Winthrop 
remained governor of Massachusetts 
Bay until his death in 1649. He exer- 
cised a marked influence upon the 
colony, and his death was greatly 
lamented. His son, also named John, 
was one of the settlers of New Haven, 
and afterwards its governor 



pany should be bodily transferred to New England, and that they 

should bring the charter with them. During the summer of 1630, 

seventeen vessels sailed from different 

ports of England, most of them coming 

to Salem or Charlestown. From ten to 

fifteen hundred persons arrived during 

this year, and among them was the new 

governor, John Winthrop. Some of the 

party settled in Salem, some in Charles- 
town, and others in various places in the 

vicinity. The peninsula of Shawmut, as 

the Indians had named it, presented a 

very suitable place for a settlement, and 

Winthrop chose it for his headquarters. 

In September this village was given 

the name of Boston, in memory of the 

tow^i in England from which some of 

the settlers had come. Boston was made the capital of the colony, 

and has always continued to be the leading town. 

61. The First Years. — ^At last the Puritans had a home, where 

they might worship as they pleased, and where they could 

rule as seemed to them best. At first all the freemen were 

in the habit of meeting and making 
their own laws. Soon the numbers 
became too many and the settlements 
too scattered for a common meeting, 
so that representatives were elected to 
the General Court, who should carry 
out the will of the voters. Only mem- 
bers of the Puritan Church were ad- 
mitted as freemen and allowed the right 
to vote. The method of voting was by 
ballot, the first use of which was in 
Salem, in August, 1629, when the 
church met to elect their ministers. 
The population grew rapidly, many 

coming from England each year, until in 1649 there were perhaps 

twenty thousand people in the colony. 



Church and State. — The first town 
meeting held in New England, that 
might properly be called by that name, 
was the meeting at Salem when the 
people chose the pastor of the church. 
At the present day, when church mat- 
ters and governmental affairs are kept 
entirely distinct, it seems very strange 
to think of the church electing town- 
ofificers. One of the earliest records of 
the church of Salem contains a notice 
of the election of a neat-herd, or an 
officer to take care of the cattle of the 
town. Church and town remained 
identical for some time, until the Gen- 
eral Court passed laws establishing the 
towns and defining their powers and 
duties. 



44 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [i 623-1 820 



CHAPTER IX. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE, CONNECTICUT, RHODE ISLAND. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

62. Mason and Gorges. — A few years after the arrival of the 
Pilgrims at Plymouth, and while the fishing colony was making 
a settlement at Cape Ann, two other colonies were begun. The 
Council of Plymouth was unsuccessful in its attempts at coloni- 
zation (IT 36), and soon began to divide 
its possessions among the members of 
the company. Sir P'erdinando Gorges 
and John Mason obtained a grant from 
the Council conveying to them the land 
between the Merrimac and the Kenne- 
bec rivers. In 1623, two fishing hamlets 
were started at Dover and Portsmouth, 
— the first important settlements in 
New Hampshire. 

63. New Hampshire and Maine. — The 
partnership lasted but a fevv years, when 
Mason and Gorges separated and divided 
their lands between themselves. Mason 
obtained a grant of the land between 
the Merrimac and the Piscataqua, and 
named his colony New Hampshire, from 
his home in England. After his death 
the few towns came under the protection of Massachusetts Bay, and 
for a time remained a part of that colony. Later New Hampshire 
had a separate government for a few years, and finally in 1691 was 
made a royal colony (^ 191), remaining so until the Revolution. 
Gorges obtained the rest of the original grant, and at first called 
it New Somersetshire. Afterwards it was called Maine, and passing 
soon under the control of Massachusetts, it so remained until 1820 
(H 447). 



Sir Ferdinando Gorges should be 
remembered as one of the most ear- 
nest and most persistent colonizers of 
America. He was especially influen- 
tial in the formation of the Virginia 
Company in i6c6. The next year he 
sent the ill-fated " I'opham Colony" 
to the coast of Maine. Captain John 
Smith was in his service when, in his 
attempt in 1615 to form a colony, he 
fell into the hands of French pirates. 
The Council of Plymouth, established 
in 1620, foimd in Gorges their most 
enthusiastic member. After the sepa- 
ration between Mason and Gorges, in 
1635, the latter retained a strong inter- 
est in his colony of New Somersetshire. 
The leading settlement was at Saco, 
where the first court was organized 
In 1636. Massachusetts Bay, imder 
her charter, however, laid claim to 
New Somersetshire, and in 1656 the 
heirs of Gorges were defeated, and 
Maine was placed under the control of 
Massachusetts. 



I635-I638] 



CONNECTICUT. 



45 



CONNECTICUT. 

64. Connecticut — The colony of Massachusetts Bay grew rapidly 
during the first few years after the settlement of Boston. Within 
five years there were thirty towns on 
or near the coast that sent their rep- 
resentatives to the General Court to 
make laws. Some of the immigrants 
began to object to the law which re- 
fused the right to vote to those who 
were not members of the Puritan 
Church. Desiring to form communi- 
ties where all should have the fran- 
chise, some of the towns decided to 
move to new localities. The fertile 
valley of the Connecticut River pre- 
sented strong attractions, and during 
the years 1635 and 1636 settlements 
were made along this river. The towns 
of Dorchester, VVatcrtown, and New- 
town (now Cambridge) moved in a 
body, and formed the villages after- 
v/ards called Windsor, Wethersfield, 
and Hartford. These were the first 
English settlements of importance within the present limits of 
Connecticut, and the colony obtained its name from that of the 
river, upon whose banks these towns were built. 

65. New Haven. — While the newly arrived immigrants from 
Massachusetts were becoming settled in the valley of the Connec- 
ticut, the beginnings of another colony were made. A party of 
settlers arriving in Boston in 1637 decided to seek a place where 
they might form a colony of their own, and not simply a town 
in Massachusetts. Under the leadership of Rev. John Davenport 
they left Boston, and sailed around Cape Cod, past the entrance 
to Narragansett Bay, and landed at the mouth of the Quinnipiack 
River in 1638. This Indian name was changed to New Haven, and 
a rival colony to Connecticut was begun. The growth, however, 
was slow, and many, Intending to settle here, were led to join the 



The Connecticut Constitution. — 
John Fiske, in " The Beginnings of 
New England," tells the story of the 
adoption of the Connecticut Constitu- 
tion. " On the 14th of January, 1639, 
all the freemen of the three towns 
assembled at Hartford and adopted 
a written constitution, in which the 
hand of the great preacher (Hooker) is 
clearly discernible. It is worthy of 
note that this document contains none 
of the conventional references to a 
' dread sovereign ' or a ' gracious king,' 
nor the slightest allusion to the Brit- 
ish or any government outside of Con- 
necticut itself, nor does it prescribe 
any condition of church-membership 
for the right of suffrage. It was the 
first written constitution known to 
history, that created a government, and 
it marked the beginnings of American 
democracy, of which Thomas Hooker 
deserves more than any other man to 
be called the father. The government 
of the United States to-day is in lineal 
descent more nearly related to that of 
Connecticut than to that of anv :> the 
other thirteen States." 



46 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1636-1638 



towns on the Connecticut, because of their greater reHgious liberty. 
The two colonies grew side by side, until the Connecticut charter 
was received in 1662 (H 185), which was followed in 1664 by the 
union of the two, under the name of the larger. The colony, and 
later the State, of Connecticut, gave proof of its double origin 
by having two capitals, Hartford and New Haven, until the year 
1873. 



RHODE ISLAND. 

66. Providence. — Religious persecution drove the Pilgrims to 
Plymouth, and also the Puritans to Salem and Boston. Religious 

liberty was not understood by the Eng- 
lishmen of th,e seventeenth century; 
those who had fled from religious op- 
pression quickly became themselves 
persecutors for religion's sake. One 
of the ministers of the town of Salem, 
unable to accept all of the beliefs and 
practices with which he was surrounded, 
began to preach and write against them. 
This man was Roger Williams, who had 
arrived in Boston in 163 1. The General 
Court determined to investigate his new 
doctrines, and as a result Roger Wil- 
liams was banished from the country 
(H 181). Unwilling to be carried back 
to England, he fled alone into the 
wilderness. This was in midwinter, and he sojourned among the 
Indians, being " tossed," as he said, '* for fourteen weeks, not 
knowing what bed or bread did mean." At length, having been 
joined by a few companions, he crossed the Seekonk River, and 
in 1636 decided to build a town, to which he gave the name of 
Providence. Here, at the northern end of Narragansett Bay, was 
established a colony which allowed perfect religious liberty. 

67. Rhode Island. — Another leader of a religious sect, Mrs. 
Anne Hutchinson, was banished from the colony of Massachusetts 
Bay in the year 1638. A home was made by her followers on an 
island in Narragansett Bay, at a place called Aquidneck, The 



Roger Williams, in a le ter writ- 
ten about 167 1, speaks thus of his win- 
ter's flight : " When I was unkindly, 
and unchristianly, as I believe, driven 
from my house, and land, and wife, 
and children, in the midst of a New 
England winter, now about thirty-five 
years past, at Salem, that ever hon- 
ored governor, Mr. Winthrop, pri- 
vately wrote to me to steer my course 
to the Narragansett Bay and Indians, 
for many high and heavenly ends, en- 
courageing me, from the freeness of 
the place from any English claims and 
patents. I took his prudent motion 
as a hint and a voice from God, and, 
waiving all other thoughts and motions, 
I steered my course from Salem — 
though in winter snow, which I yet 
feel — unto these parts, wherein I may 
say Peniel., that is, I have seen the 
face of God." 



I644-I79I] 



RHODE ISLAND. 



47 




towns of Newport and Portsmouth sprang up on this island of 
Rhode Island, and the colony of Rhode Island was thus begun. 
This continued on friendly 
terms with its neighbor at 
Providence, until a charter 
was obtained in 1644, 
which incorporated the col- 
ony of " Rhode Island 
and Providence Planta- 
tions." Under another 
charter, received in 1663, 
the government was car- 
ried on until near the mid- 
dle of the present century. 
To-day Rhode Island is the 
only State having two cap- 
itals, and holds sessions of 
its legislature each year at 
Providence and Newport. 

68. NewEng^land. — Thus, 
in the year 1638, there had 
been established in New 
England seven distinct col- 
onies. New Hampshire, 




Roger Williams's Monument, Providence, R. I. 



which remained a separate colony for most of its history; Massa- 
chusetts Bay and Plymouth, which were united in 1691 ; Connecticut 
and New Haven, which continued apart until 1665 ; and Rhode 
Island and Providence, which were joined in 1644. After the year 
1691, New England contained four colonies, with the boundaries 
nearly as at present, except that Maine continued a part of Massa- 
chusetts until it became a State in 1820 (11447) ^"^ that Vermont 
was claimed by New Hampshire and New York until it was ad- 
mitted to the Union in 1 791 (IT 402). 




Mile? SfAndislVs Sword 



1609J NEW YORK. 49 



CHAPTER X. 

NEW YORK. 

69. The Dutch. — On the west coast of the continent of Europe, 
directly across the British Channel from England, lies the country 
of Holland. This is the kingdom which was the famous Dutch 
Republic of the seventeenth century. During the sixteenth cen- 
tury, the Protestant faith took strong hold of the prosperous and 
educated people of the Netherlands, and a long and terrible war 
with the king of Spain followed. For eighty years they fought 
the most powerful king in the world, and yet were able, at the 
same time, to advance in prosperity, and to become the greatest 
commercial nation of the time. While the English were making 
their first permanent settlements in America, the Dutch Republic 
was driving the Spanish and the Portuguese from the ocean, and 
building up a trade with India and the East. . 

70. Henry Hudson. — The Dutch were not content with the long 
journey around the south of Africa, and determined to send an 
expedition to seek for a more direct route. Accordingly, in 
1609, the Dutch East India Company directed Henry Hudson 
to make an expedition toward the north, and to find a way to 
China. Hudson was an Englishman, though in the employ of 
the Dutch, and had made two similar attempts before this time. 
He first tried to find a passage north of I^urope, and then set 
sail for the west; after traversing the coast from Newfoundland 
to the Delaware, he passed through the Narrows between Staten 
Island and Long Island. Pleased with the beauty of the bay, 
as well as with its excellence as a harbor, Hudson sailed up the 
river, past the Palisades, almost to the mouth of the Mohawk 
River. He decided that he had not found the northwest passage 
through America, and returned to Holland to report the result of 
his voyages. The magnificent river received his name, as well as 
the great bay in British America, to which he afterward went, and 
where he lost his life. 



50 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1610-1623 



71. The Traders. — The commercial character of the Dutch led 
them at once to see an opportunity to establish trade with 
this portion of the New World which they now claimed as 
their territory through Hudson's discoveries. They could sell to 
the Indians many of the products of their excellent manufactories, 
and could also obtain from them an endless supply of the furs 
with which the interior of the country abounded. In 1610, another 
vessel entered the Hudson River which made purchases of furs 
from the Indians. The next year other vessels were sent from 




Hudson Sailing up the River. 

Holland, and about 1614 a few huts were built on the Island of 
Manhattan, and a ''strong house," called Fort Nassau, was erected 
near the present site of Albany. A brisk trade sprang up, so that 
in 162 1 the States-General of Holland chartered the Dutch West 
India Company, and gave it complete control over all the land 
claimed by the Dutch on this continent. 

72. New Netherland. — In March, 1623, the first settlers were sent 
out by the West India Company, under the command of Captain 
May. This party made the first real colony within the Dutch 



i 626-1 664] 



NEW YORK. 



51 




territory, then called New Netherland. Small settlements were made 
at the mouth of the Hudson, or North River, on the Delaware, or 
South River, and on the Connecti- 
cut, while most of the immigrants 
went to Albany. Thus, three years 
later than the Pilgrims, and seven 
years before the founding of Bos- 
ton, the Dutch colony took its 
position between Canada and Vir- 
ginia. Purchasing land of the 
Indians, the people were soon on 
good terms with them, and New 
Netherland at once became a pros- 
perous colony. 

73. The Dutch Colony. — Peter 
Minuit, the first governor, or 
director-general, took possession 
in 1626, and, with a council of 
five, exercised supreme authority. 
He purchased the Island of Manhattan from the Indians for twenty- 
four dollars, and built P'ort Amsterdam 
to be the seat of government. Minuit 
was succeeded by Walter Van Twiller 
in 1633, and during his rule the valley 
of the Connecticut was lost to the 
Dutch (H 64). The most noted governor 
of New Netherland was Peter Stuyve- 
sant, who was director-general from 
1647 to 1664. Stuyvesant ruled the 
colony with a rod of iron, and was in 
continual conflict with the people. He 
settled the long-standing dispute with 
Connecticut over the boundary between 
the two colonies, and annexed Dela- 
ware by conquering the Swedes (IT 81). 



Peter Stuyvesant. 

(From a painting in the possession of the 
N. Y. Historical Society.) 



Peter Stuyvesant, the last and 
greatest of the governors of New 
Netherland, was born in Holland in 
1602, and died in New York at the age 
of eighty. In May, 1647, he arrived in 
New Amsterdam, and was received 
with great rejoicing. He "was above 
medium height, with a fine physique. 
He dressed with care, and usually wore 
slashed hose fastened at the knee by a 
knotted scarf, a velvet jacket with 
slashed sleeves over a full puffed shirt, 
and rosettes upon his shoes. Although 
abrupt in manner, unconventional, cold, 
and haughty, full of prejudice and pas- 
sion, and sometimes unapproachable, 
he possessed large sympathies and 
tender afFsction. His clear judgment, 
quick perception, and extent of reading 
were remarkable." (Appleton's Cyclo- 
pedia of American Biography.) 



Under his government the colony took 
a high rank In educational matters, and a popular government 
was established in 1664. 



52 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1660-1685 



74. New York. — The position of New Netherland, with EngHsh 
colonies on both sides, was calculated to cause trouble with Eng- 
land. Soon after the Restoration in 1660, Charles II. granted to 
his brother, the Duke of York, afterwards James II., all the land 
between the Connecticut and the Delaware rivers. In 1664 a fleet 
appeared at New Amsterdam, and Stuyvesant, unable to defend his 
possessions, surrendered to the English deputy-governor. A few 
years later the Dutch recaptured the colony, but were unable to 
hold it, and "Dutch New Netherland became permanently English 
New York. In 1685 James succeeded his brother as king of 
England, and New York became a royal colony. 



CHAPTER XI, 



MARYLAND. 



75. Avalon. — Sir George Calvert was one of the many English 
gentlemen who took a deep interest in schemes of colonization. On 

account of the favorable reports which 
he received of Newfoundland, Calvert 
obtained a charter, granting him a por- 
tion of that island. In 1623, the year 
of the settlements of New Hampshire, 
Cape Ann, and New Amsterdam, a col- 
ony was established at Newfoundland, 
which received the name of Avalon. 
In 1628 Calvert himself, with most of 
his family, took up his residence in the 
colony. The little settlement found the 
climate extremely severe, and was in 
constant trouble with the French fisher- 
men. It was without the necessary 
conditions for a successful colony, and 
was abandoned. Its charter, however, served as a model for the 
later patent of Maryland. 



" George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, 
one of the principal secretaries of state 
under James I., was born at Kipling, 
in Yorkshire, in 1582 He was edu- 
cated at Oxford, and entered the public 
service as secretary to Robert Cecil. 
In 1617 he was knighted, and in 1619 
he was made one of the principal sec- 
retaries of state. In 1625 he was made 
Baron Baltimore, and among other re- 
wards he received for his services was 
a patent as Lord of the province of 
Avalon, in Newfoundland. As this 
colony was much exposed to the attacks 
of the French, he left it and obtained 
another patent for Maryland. He died 
in 1632, before the grant was confirmed, 
but in that year it was made out in the 
name of his son Cecil." (Encyclopedia 
Britannica. Vol. IV.) 



I623-I729] 



MARYLAND. 



53 



76. Lord Baltimore. — Calvert, in 1623, became a Roman Catholic, 
and soon after was made Baron Baltimore by James I. After 
he found his Newfoundland colony impracticable, he petitioned 
Charles I. for another tract of land in a warmer climate, somewhere 
near the latitude of Jamestown. Meeting with opposition from the 
settlers of Virginia, Baltimore ap- 
plied for and received a grant of 
land north of the Potomac River. 
In honor of Queen Henrietta Maria, 
Baltimore named his colony Mary- 
land. When the first I>ord Balti- 
more died, his son, Cecil Calvert, 
inherited his father's title, and 
became proprietor of Maryland. 

77. Settlements. — The first set- 
tlem^ent was made March 27th, 1634, 
near the mouth of the Potomac, 
and was called St. Mary's. The 
occupations of the settlers and the 
nature of the country did not favor 
the making of large towns. The 
people were principally engaged 
in farming, especially in raising tobacco, which was shipped direct 
from the farmers. Each planter had land lying upon the coast of 
the bay or the shores of the rivers, and could provide a wharf from 
his own land in water deep enough for the shallow vessels of those 
days. This was true, also, of the other southern colonies. Near 
the close of the seventeenth century another important town wa& 
founded, and the capital was moved from St. Mary's to Annapolis. 
The town of Baltimore, now the largest city in the State of Mary- 
land, was not founded until 1729- 

78. The Settlers. — In the first two vessels to bring colonists to 
Maryland, there were '' about twenty gentlemen and between two 
and three hundred laboring men and handycraftsmen." These 
settlers were not adventurers, like the early colonists in the South, 
nor were they religious refugees, like the ''Mayflower" voyagers. 
The colony was established on purely business principles, and men 
were chosen for settlers of such character and occupation as would 




Lord Baltimore. 
(After tin enejraving' by A. Blotling (1657). now in the posses- 
sion of the Maryland Historical Society, at Baltimore, Md.) 



54 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1623-1631 



be needed in such a settlement. Many of them were Roman 
CathoHcs, and at first the government granted religious toleration. 
Soon after the English revolution of 1688, when William and Mary 
came to the throne, the Church of England was made the estab- 
lished church of the colony, and the Roman Catholics became the 
victims of religious persecution (t 183). Maryland remained under 
the government of her proprietor until, with her sister colonies, she 
threw off all allegiance to the mother country. 



CHAPTER XII. 



DELAWARE AND NEW JERSEY. 



DELAWARE. 

79. Dutch Settlements. — When the first Dutch colony arrived, 
under Cornelius May (H 72), in 1623, a small number formed a 
settlement upon what was then called South River. These Dutch- 
men ascended the river, since called the Delaware, to a point near 

the present Philadelphia, and there 
built Fort Nassau. For about eight 
years this little colony struggled for 
existence, until, in 1631, the Indians 
massacred the settlers and the river was 
deserted. The Dutch continued to 
claim the region, and always protested 
against the coming of colonists of any 
other nationality. 

80. The Swedes. — To the north of 
Holland lies a country inhabited by 
people of a race closely related to 
the Dutch. The great king, Gustavus 
Adolphus, saw the advantages which 
his nation might receive from a Swedish 
colony, and therefore, in 1626; chartered the Swedish South Com- 
pany, as it was commonly called. No discoveries had been made 
by this nation, but the company relied upon the claim which they 



Gustavus Adolphus was king of 
Sweden for twenty-one years, from 
16:1 to 1632. He was born in 1594, 
the son of Charles IX. His youth 
was spent in study, not only of the 
various languages and sciences of the 
day, but also of statesmanship, as he 
attended council meetings by the time 
he was ten years of age. When he 
came to the throne he was not only 
unusually gifted in literary attainments, 
but was a man of strong character 
and extraordinary courage. His entire 
reign was spent in wars, most of them 
religious, and from this he has received 
the title of the " Hero of Protestant- 
ism." "Gustavus Adolphus is justly 
regarded as one of the noblest and 
greatest figures in history." 



1632-1682] NEW JERSEY. 55 

would obtain by the purchase of land from the Indians. The 
Thirty Years' War interfered with the schemes of colonization, and 
the king died in 1632. The plan was not abandoned, however, and 
in 1637 a colony was sent out from Sweden to the new continent. 

81. New Sweden. — The first Swedish colony was under the 
command of Peter Minuit, formerly governor of New Netherland, 
and the first settlement was on the Delaware. Fort Christina was 
built near the site of the present Wilmington, the land being pur- 
chased from the Indians. This was within the territory claimed by 
the Dutch, but they were afraid to enter into disputes with the 
brave Swedes of those days. The growth of New Sweden was 
very slow, and at the end of seventeen years, in 1655, there were 
perhaps seven hundred people in the colony. During that year 
the Dutch, deeming themselves of sufficient strength, attacked Fort 
Christina, and with no shedding of blood New Sweden again 
became a part of the Dutch possessions. 

82. Delaware. — The Dutch retained possession of the lands upon 
the Delaware less than ten years. When the Duke of York, in 
1664, wrested New Netherland from the Dutch, Delaware became 
an English colony. New Jersey was soon granted to other pro- 
prietors, but Delaware continued to be a part of New York and 
directly under the control of the duke. Soon after William Penn 
had secured a grant of the land which he called Pennsylvania, he 
found that his colony needed access to the ocean, and he obtained 
from the Duke of York a deed of the three lower counties on the 
Delaware (IT 95). The small strip of land which had first been 
under the Dutch, then under the Swedes, then under the Dutch 
again, afterwards conquered by the Duke of York, had at last 
obtained, in 1682, a permanent owner, and become a part of the 
possessions of the Quaker proprietor. Delaware had the same 
governor as Pennsylvania, but a different legislature, until, by the 
American Revolution, it became an independent State. 



NEW JERSEY. 

83. New Jersey. — The early history of the colony of New Jersey 
is almost the same as that of its neighbors, New York and Dela- 
ware. The Dutch claimed its territory as a part of New Netherland, 



56 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1664-1688 



but made few if any permanent settlements within its limits. The 
Swedes did not confine themselves within the present boundaries 
of Delaware, a few of them having farms across the Delaware River. 
When the Dutch seized upon New Sweden, they claimed continuous 
land from the Hudson to and beyond the Delaware, but did not 
have any setdements of note between New Amsterdam and Chris- 
tina. When the Dutch surrendered to the Duke of York, the land 
became a part of his territory,, and immediately its history as a 
separate colony began. 

84. Berkeley and Carteret. — One of the first acts of the Duke 
of York, after acquiring his new territory, was to give a certain 

portion to two of his friends. In 
1664 Lord Berkeley and Sir George 
Carteret received from the duke a 



The Isle of Jersey is one of the 
islands in the British Channel, and 
contains about forty-five square miles. 
Sir George Carteret was governor of 
this island at the breaking out of the 
Civil War in England in 1642, and the 
island under his leadership remained 
loyal to King Charles. The Channel 
Islands suffered great loss because of 
their devotion to the king, and only 
yielded to Parliament when, in 165 1, 
it was evident that a further contest 
was useless. When the Duke of York, 
James II., gave a part ownership of 
New Jersey to Carteret, it was a par- 
tial recompense for the devotion which 
Carteret had shown to his father. King 
Charles. 



o^rant of the land between the Hudson 

o 



and the Delaware. To this territory 
was given the name of New Jersey, in 
honor of Carteret, who had been gov- 
ernor of the Isle of Jersey. Berkeley 
sold his portion to two Quakers in 
1674, and New Jersey was divided 
into East Jersey, belonging to Car- 
teret, and West Jersey, a Quaker col- 
ony. Later Carteret's heirs sold East 
Jersey to William Penn, and in 1702 
the two colonies were united, and henceforth New Jersey was a 
royal colony. 

85. Settlements. — The early settlers of New Jersey were of three 
different classes. Some of them were New England Puritans, 
others came across the border from New York, while others were 
Quakers who came direct from England. A few months after the 
surrender of New Netherland, a few persons from Long Island 
began, in 1665, to make a settlement at Elizabethtown. Here the 
new governor of Jersey found them and confirmed their right to 
the land. Religious toleration was permitted, and settlers began 
to arrive In numbers from the New England colonies. By 1688 
settlements had been made in such numbers that a colonial legis- 
lature was assembled. The class of people that flocked to New 



1653-1665] THE CAROLINAS. 57 

Jersey was of the best, and the history of the people is one of 
quiet growth. The Indians were rarely troublesome, and the ad- 
joining colonies of New York and Pennsylvania protected New 
Jersey from the French. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. 

THE CAROLINAS. 

86. Early History. — There were many unsuccessful attempts to 
colonize the land lying to the south of Virginia before the first 
permanent settlement was made. The most important of these 
were the Port Royal Colony of the French Huguenots (t 19), and 
the two disastrous colonies of Raleigh at Roanoke Island (H 28). 
During the century which followed the massacre of the Huguenots, 
many English settlers sought homes in this tract of land, which 
was called Carolana, or Carolina. The colony sent out by the 
London Company was intended for Roanoke Island (1137), but 
instead sailed up the James River. Charles I, gave to one of his 
favorites a grant of Carolana, but no permanent settlements were 
made. 

87. Early Settlers. — It was not until the middle of the seventeenth 
century that emigration began to set towards Carolina. In 1653, 
a party of Virginians made a settlement on the Albemarle River. 
These settlers had been harassed while in Virginia because they 
were not in sympathy with the Church of England, the estab- 
lished church of the colony (1 179). The Albemarle settlement 
was close to the original boundary of Virginia, but within the 
present limits of North Carolina. Some New Englanders at- 
tempted a settlement at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, but 
soon abandoned it because they deemed the place unsuitable. 
A party of Englishmen from Barbadoes were better satisfied with 
the location, and the Cape Fear Colony was established in 1665. 

88. The Proprietors. — Charles II., on ascending the throne at the 
Restoration, rewarded many of his friends by giving them lands in 



58 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1663-1729 

the New World. In 1663 the king granted land south of Virginia 
to eight proprietors, and in 1665 enlarged the territory. Carolina, 
as thus granted, extended from the present southern boundary of 
Virginia, on the north, many miles beyond the Spanish town of St. 
Augustine, on the south, and westward to the Pacific. Among 
these proprietors were the Earl of Clarendon, the Duke of Albe- 
marle, Lord Ashley Cooper, and Sir William Berkeley. The 
proprietors permitted the settlers who had already arrived to re- 
main, and offered liberal inducements to attract immigrants to the 
new colony. Within a few years, besides the Albemarle and 
Clarendon or Cape Fear counties, two other settlements were 
begun, one on the Ashley and Cooper rivers, called Charleston, 
and one farther south, at Port Royal. The Charleston settlement 
grew the more rapidly, and the southern portion of the colony 
became the more important. 

89. The Locke Constitution. — The proprietors attempted to place 
over the colonists of Carolina a form of government entirely un- 
suited to the time and character of the people. John Locke, one 
of England's greatest philosophers, is said to have drawn up the 
constitution, and the proprietors strove to enforce it for twenty 
years. It was based on the idea that the mass of the people 
should not only have no voice in public affairs, but that they 
should belong to the land, and be incapable of rising above the 
lot to which they were born. The tenants should be bought and 
sold almost as slaves, while their owners were to constitute a priv- 
ileged class, called the nobility. Such titles were bestowed as 
admiral, chancellor, baron, landgrave, and cazique, and the supreme 
ruler was called the palatine. The woodsmen and farmers refuse^ 
to have anything to do with such a government, and before 1 690 
the proprietors abandoned the struggle. This was the only attempt 
ever made to establish a nobility in any of the colonies, and its 
result was to weaken the government and -to injure the prosperity 
of the colony. 

90. North and South Carolina. — The proprietors did not find so 
much profit in the colony as they had anticipated. Settlement 
went on very slowly, religious troubles became common, disorder 
and riots prevailed. In 1729, after an ownership of about sixty- 
five years, the proprietors gave up their rights to the king. 



I732-I733] 



GEORGIA. 



59 



Carolina already consisted of two counties, each with its own gov- 
ernor and assembly. At this time the king decided to divide the 
colony, and the two provinces thus formed were called North and 
South Carolina. 



GEORGIA. 

91. Oglethorpe. — The condition of the lower classes in England 
during the seventeenth century was very pitiable. The prisons 
were crowded with those who were unable to pay their debts, and 
these prisons were in a most terrible state. James Oglethorpe, a 
member of Parliament, was chair- 
man of a committee on prisons. 
He was moved with compassion 
at the condition which he found, 
and formed the idea of establish- 
ing a colony for the poor and the 
oppressed. He prevailed upon the 
merchants of London, and upon 
Parliament also, to help pay the 
debts of those who were willing to 
emigrate to the New World. 

92. Government. — In 1732 Ogle- 
thorpe obtained from King George 




H. a grant of land between the 



James Oglethorpe. 

(From an old engraving.) 



Savannah and Altamaha rivers. 
This colony was to be called Georgia, in honor of the king, and 
was founded for two special purposes. It was to be a refuge for 
the poor and the oppressed of all lands, and at the same time 
it was to form a protection to Carolina from the Spaniards in 
Florida. The king's charter placed Georgia for twenty-one years 
in the hands of twenty-one trustees, '' in trust for the poor." 
Fhe trustees were to have full power, but were to obtain no per- 
sonal advantage from the colony. The result was unsatisfactory, 
however, and the trustees gladly surrendered their rights in 1752, 
and Georgia became a royal colony. 

93. Settlement. — The first settlement within the colony was made 
by Oglethorpe himself with thirty-five families, in 1733, at Savannah. 
Some German Protestants came the following year, and other col- 



6o 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



[i68i 



onists soon followed. It was not long before the trustees found that 
others besides paupers were needed to make the colony a success. 
Scotch and German immigration was therefore encouraged, and as 
long as Oglethorpe remained in the colony, it enjoyed a general 
prosperity, although it continued to be scarcely more than an 
experiment up to the time of the Revolution. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



PENNSYLVANIA. 

94. Quakers. — One of the results of the religious agitations in 
Europe during the seventeenth century (H 47) was the formation 
of the sect called Friends, or Quakers. George Fox was the 
founder of this denomination, and its peculiar features caused it 

to receive severe persecution. 
The Friends did not believe 
in any church with paid min- 
i ters or priests, and objected 
to State support of religion. 
They believed in the equality 
of persons, would not remove 
their hats even in the presence 
of the king, and used no titles 
in their conversation. They 
dressed very plainly, and re- 
fused to engage in war or 
attempt to enforce obedience 
to laws (H 182). 

95. William Penn.— The doc- 
trines of George Fox were 
accepted by a large number 
of those who were dissatisfied 
with the Church of England, and rich and poor alike joined the 
b^dy of Friends. Among them was William Penn, a son of 
AJ.miral Sir William Penn, a man of high rank and a friend of King 




William Penn. 

(After the painting in the rooms of the Pa Hist. Soo., Phil.) 



I68I-I683] 



PENNSYLVANIA. 



61 



Charles II. and his brother, then Duke of York. Penn became 
interested in the attempt of the Quakers to settle West Jersey, and 
determined to provide a refuge for those who might be persecuted 
for religion's sake. In 1681 Charles II. gave him a grant of the land 
now comprised within the limits of Pennsylvania, in payment of a 
debt which the government had owed to his father. The king 
called the country " Pennsylvania," or " Penn's Woods," in honor of 
the admiral, in spite of objections that Penn made to the name. By 
this charter Penn obtained a title to forty thousand square miles of 
land, which was increased the next year by the purchase of Dela- 
ware from the Duke of York (H 82). 

96. Settlement. — The Swedes and the Dutch had begun small 
settlements on the banks of the Delaware many years before the 
grant to Penn. These villages were of 
but little account, however, and the 
real settlement of Pennsylvania may be 
said to have been made in 168 1. Three 
vessels of Quakers came over in this 
year, and in the following year Penn 
himself arrived with a hundred com- 
panions. He fended at Newcastle, Del., 
and soon after held his first assembly 
at Chester, or Upland. Passing up the 
Delaware to its junction with the Schuyl- 
kill, Penn chose this strip of land to be 
the site for his capital, and in 1683 laid 
out the city of Philadelphia, or ''Broth- 
erly Love." He met the Indians under 
an elm-tree at Shackamaxon, and pur- 
chased the land from them for his city. 
Though the colony was founded for the 
sake of the despised Quakers, those 
opinions were cordially invited, and 



" The scene at Shackamaxon 

forms the subject of one of the pic- 
tures of West. Shall the event be 
commemorated by the pencil? Imag- 
ine the chiefs of the savage com- 
munities, of noble shape and grave 
demeanor, assembled in council without 
arms : the old men sit in a half-moon 
upon the ground ; the middle-aged are 
in a like figure at a little distance be- 
hind them ; the young foresters form a 
third semi-circle in the rear. Before 
them stands William Penn, graceful in 
the summer of life, in dress scarce dis- 
tinguished by a belt, surrounded by a 
few Friends, chiefly young men, and, 
like Anaxagoras, whose example he 
cherished, pointing to the skies, as 
the tranquil home to which not Chris- 
tians only, but 

' the souls of heathen go, 
Who better live than we, thuii.L;h less they 
know.' •• 

(Bancroft's History of the United States). 



other religious 



who held 

persecution w\as unknown. 
Religious freedom and easy laws stimulated immigration, and the 
colony grew rapidly, with Germans and Scotch-Irish, as well as 
English, among its numbers. 

97. Government. — Penn prepared a " Frame ot Government" and 
proposed it to the colonists, and the first Assembly adopted it. 



62 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1589-162^ 



Perfect religious freedom was accorded to all who believed in God, 

and the only religious qualification 
for the officers was that they be pro- 
fessing Christians. Many of the laws 
were such as would be particularly 
appropriate for a Quaker colony, and 
they made Pennsylvania, in many re- 
spects, a pattern for the other settle- 
ments. • The same spirit showed itself 
in Penn's treatment of the Indians. He 
was always honest and straightforward 
in his dealings with them, so that they 
acquired a love and respect for him. 
This was doubtless the leading cause of the freedom that Penn- 
sylvania enjoyed from Indian warfare. 



The "Frame of Government" 

provides among other things, " That 
all persons living in this province, who 
confess and acknowledge the one Al- 
mighty and Eternal God to be the Cre- 
ator, Upholder and Ruler of the world, 
and that hold themselves obliged, in 
conscience, to live peaceably and justly 
in civil society, shall, in no ways, be 
molested, or prejudiced, for their re- 
ligious perswasion, or practice, in mat- 
ters of faith and worship; nor shall 
they be compelled, at any time, to fre- 
quent, or maintain, any religious wor- 
ship, place or ministry whatever." 



CHRONOLOGY. 



1589. 
1598. 
1603. 
1605. 
1606. 
1607. 
1608. 

1609. 



1610. 
1612. 
1614. 
1619. 

1620. 

1621. 
1623. 



France — Reign of Henry IV. 

Spain — Reign of Philip III. 

England — Reign of James I. 

Port Royal — Settlement by De Monts. 

Charter granted to London and Plymouth Companies, April 10. 

Jamestown — Settlement by London Company, May 13. 

Holland — Immigration of the Scrooby Pilgrims. 

Quebec — Settlement by Champlain, July 3. 

Virginia — Second charter of the London Company. 

Hudson River— Explored by Henry Hudson. 

Lake Champlain — Explored by Champlain. 

France — Reign of Louis XIII. 

Virginia — Third charter of London Company. 

Fort Nassau — Built by Christiaensen. 

Virginia — First Legislative Assembly, July 30. 

Virginia — First importation of negro slaves. 

Plymouth — Settlement by the Pilgrims, December 21, N. S. 

New England — Charter of the Council of Plymouth. 

Spain — Reign of Philip IV. 

Manhattan — Settlement by the Dutch. 

New Hampshire — Settlement at Dover and Portsmouth. 

Massachusetts — Settlement at Cape Ann. 



1624-1673] 



CHRONOLOGY. 



63 



1624. Virginia — Cliarter of London Company annulled. 

1625. England — Reign of Charles I. 

1626. Salem — Settlement by Conant. 

1629. Massachusetts Bay — Charter granted, March 4. 

1630. Boston — Settlement by Winthrop, August. 

1634. Maryland — Settlement at St. Mary's, March. 

1635. New England — Council of Plymouth resigns its patent. 

1635 to 1636. Connecticut — Settlement at Wethersfield, Windsor, and 
Hartford. 

1636. Rhode Island — Settlement at Providence. 

1637. New England — Pequot War. 

1638. Delaware — Settlement by the Swedes. 
Rhode Island — Settlement at Newport. 
Connecticut — Settlement at New Haven. 

1639. Connecticut — Constitution adopted, January 14. 
1643. France — Reign of Louis XIV. 

1649. England — Commonwealth. 

1655. Delaware — Conquered by the Dutch. 

1660. England — The Restoration. Reign of Charles II. 

1662. Connecticut — Charter granted, April 20. 

1663. Rhode Island — Charter granted, July 8. 
Carolina — Granted by Charles II., March 24. 

1664. New York — Conquered by the English, September 

1665. New Jersey — Settlement at Elizabethtown. 
Connecticut and New Haven united. 
Spain — Reign of Charles II. 

1669. Carolina — Locke's Constitution formed. 

1670. South Carolina — Settlement at Old Charleston. 

1673. Great Lakes — Explored by Marquette and Joliet. 

1674. New Jersey — Divided into East and West Jersey. 

1675. New England — King Philip's War begun. 

1681. Pennsylvania — Granted to William Penn, March 4. 

1682. Pennsylvania — Settlement at Philadelphia. 
Mississippi River — Explored by La Salle. 
Delaware — Sold to Penn. 

1685. England — Reign of James II. 
1689. England — Reign of William and Mary. 
1691. Plymouth — United to Massachusetts. 
1700. Spain — Reign of Philip V. 

1702. England — Reign of Anne. 

1703. Delaware — Becomes a separate colony. 

1714. England — Reign of George I. 

1715. France — Reign of Louis XV. 
1727. England — Reign of George II. 

1733. Georgia — Settlement at Savannah, February 12. 



OBlacfiboarD aiual^sijS^ 



COLONIAL 
WAKS 



Indian 



r Features. 
Characteristics \ Scc^pations. 
I Distribution. 



Warfare 



Pequots 



.King Philip 



r New France 



French Wars 



. French 



Fourth War 



, Treaty of 1763 



r Contrasts between Indians 
J AND White Men. 
j Implements of War. 
vRace Difficulties. 

r Indians in Connecticut. 
-{ The Story of the War. 
[The Tribe exterminated. 

The Tribe of the Pokanokets. 
Attempt to exterminate the 

English.' 
Great Swamp-Fight. 
The War Severe. 

NEARLY Explorers. 
Settlements at Acadia and 

Quebec. 
Explorations of the Jesuits. 
La Salle's Discovery of the 

Mississippi. 
.Extent of the Country. 

rKiNG William's War. 
■} Queen Anne's War. 
[ King George's War. 

/Causes of the War. 

Attempt to unite the Colo- 
nies. 

English Defeat under Brad- 
dock. 

English Failures everywhere. 

William Pitt comes to the 
Rescue. 

Plan of Campaign. 

Fall of Quebec. 

{Conquest of Canada. 
France shut out from North 
America. 
Effect upon the English 
Colonies. 



1640. 




Copyright, 1892, in MacConn's Historical Geography of i/ie United States. 



IndiAiA weapons , 



SECTION III. 
COLONIAL WARS. 



CHAPTER XV. 

INDIAN CHARACTERISTICS. 

98. Indians. — Europeans found this country inhabited by a 
copper-colored race of men whom they called Indians, supposing 
that this land was a part of the East Indies. They were divided 
into tribes, and each tribe was governed by a sachem. Most of 
these tribes were rude savages, living in huts called wigwams, 
made of bark and skins of animals. They lived in hamlets, or 
villages, and frequently moved from place to place. Individuals 
laid no claim to the land, but the tribal limits were sometimes 
well defined. Traces of half-civilized and civilized races were 
found in different parts of the country, especially in the great in- 
terior valley of the Mississippi and its branches. 

In Mexico, Central America, and Peru a hie^her decree of civ- 
ilization existed. The people lived in permanent towns and cities, 
and were subject to an established government. They cultivated 
the soil, carried on various useful arts, built roads and substantial 
buildings. Including temples of worship. In the Ohio and Missis- 
sippi valleys were found monuments of various kinds, such as 
mounds, fortifications, pyramids, temples. Here were also remains 
of pottery, implements of stone and copper, and occasionally rude 
sculptures. 

99. Features. ^ — -The Indians were of moderate heig^ht, straight in 
form, active and athletic of limb. Their features were usually reg- 
ular, and they had high cheek-bones like the people of interior and 

S 



66 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 




northeastern Asia. They had uniformly long straight coarse black 
hair, but little beard or none at all. They were characterized 

by great physical endurance, 
and were staid, taciturn, and 
stoical. 

100. Mental and Moral 
Traits. — Their mental and 
moral traits may be summa- 
rized as follows : they were 
daring, brave, and self-pos- 
sessed ; they were warm, cor- 
dial, and faithful to their 
friends, but treacherous, vin- 
lictive, and cruel to their en- 
emies. They were usually 
stern and dignified in their 
bearing, and generally cau- 

Indian Method of Boiling. , . , '^ i i r 

tious and reserved before 
strangers. They had quick perceptions, which were highly cul- 
tivated by their manner of life. Their powers of observation, espe- 
cially their senses of sight 
and hearing, were remark- Bim 
ably acute and accurate. 

101. Employment.^ — In 
general they had no houses, 
except the wigwams al- 
ready mentioned, and no 
regular occupation. Their 
chief support came from 
hunting and fishing. The 
women often cultivated 
small patches of ground, 
and raised Indian corn, 
melons, tobacco, and a few '"^'^" ^^^^•^'^ °^ ^•'°'""^- 

other plants. They were a roving people, rude and lazy. The 
principal employment of the Indians was hunting. They killed wild 
animals with the bow and arrow, or with darts or javelins. Being 
ignorant of the use of iron, they tipped their arrows with sharp- 




INDIAN CHARACTERISTICS. 67 

pointed stones. The buffalo, the bear, the wolf, furnished them 
with food, dress, shelter, and warmth. They had no tame animals 
except the dog. 

102. Women. — The women performed the hard labor of daily 
life. The wife, or squaw, was really a slave to her husband. Men 
bought their brides and sold their daughters. In return for their 
drudgery the women received very little but neglect and abuse. 
To children, after the years of infancy, but little attention was 
given. 

103. Great Tribes. — The Indians of the United States east of the 
Mississippi were embraced principally in four great divisions: the 
Algonquins, the Iroquois, the Chcrokees, the Appalaches. West 
of the Mississippi were the Dakotas, the Shoshones, the Apaches, 
the Comanchcs, all east of the Rocky Mountains. On the Pacific 
slope were found the Walla Wallas, the Ncz Perces, the Flat 
Heads, the Spokanes, the Yakamas, the Clatsops, the Utahs, the 
Modocs, the Aztecs, the Zunis, the Pueblos, and numerous other 
tribes of less note. 

In these different tribes were to be observed great differences of 
appearance, of disposition, of language, and of culture. The Indians 
who first met the white people on the Atlantic coast were of the 
various branches of Algonquins. 

104. Number of Indians. — The number of Indians at the time of 
the first European settlement within what is now the United States 
has been variously estimated at from a quarter of a million to a 
million. Probably the former number is nearer the truth than the 
latter. At present these people, within the limits of our country, 
number about two hundred and sixty-five thousand. Until recently 
it had been estimated that the number was diminishing, but it is 
now generally considered that their number is slowly increasing, 
owing perhaps to the more humane treatment which prevails at 
the present time. 




68 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

EARLY CONFLICTS. 

105. Indians and White Men. — On the first arrival of the white 
men the Indians were inchned to regard them as of supernatural 
origin. They treated them with hospitality, veneration, and con- 
fidence, but they soon discovered that the Europeans were mortal 
as well as themselves ; and when the Spaniards, at an early date, 

and, later, the English kidnapped the In- 
dians and sold them into slavery, used 
them as captive guides for explorations, 
and murdered them on slight provocation, 
sentiments of distrust and hatred naturally 

Indian Shell Axe- j j 1.1 • r i • r j 

succeeded then* leehngs oi awe and ven- 
eration. The Indians soon felt justified in wreaking their vengeance 
on the white race whenever they failed to find individual offenders. 

106. Modes of Warfare. — Under these circumstances the Indians 
became exceedingly cruel. Their mode of warfare was skulking; 
and when aroused to vengeance they appeared to enjoy nothing 
better than to pillage and burn the homes of the whites, and to 
murder with special cruelty the women and children. Hence the 
whites began to fear and to loathe the savage, and they often added 
greatly to the bitterness of the struggle by retaliation in kind. The 
white people themselves were too frequently brutal, reckless, and 
lawless, and under such conditions clashing between the white set- 
tlers and the Indians was inevitable. 

107. Difficulties between the Races. — At the very first the white 
men were received by the Indians with friendship. Difficulties, 
however, would naturally arise; and as the colonies increased in 
number and pushed farther and farther into the country, the Indians 
saw that they were losing the land over which they had hitherto 
freely roamed, and upon which they had lived unmolested. Even 
the English settlers showed but little wisdom in their treatment of 
the Indians. A few men here and there treated them kindly, and 
some sought to make Christian? of them. The Rev. John Eliot, of 




1636] EARLY CONFLICTS. 69 

Boston, spent his life In earnest efforts to Christianize them. He 
translated the Bible into their language. This was the first Bible 
printed in America. It was published in Cambridge in 1663. 

108. Pequot War. — The first severe war that occurred between 
the English settlers and the Indians was in 1636, and is known as 
the Pequot War. The Pequots were a savage tribe of Indians 
living mostly in Connecticut (H 64). In June, 1634, the Indians 
treacherously murdered 
two white men who had 
long been in the habit of 
visiting them to trade. In 
August, 1635, they inhu- 

1 11 11 Indian War Club* 

manly murdered a whole 

family, and soon afterwards the wife and children of another family 
near Hartford. These unprovoked acts of barbarity kindled the 
resentment of the English, and they began making preparations to 
exterminate the cruel tribe of Pequots. The Indians then sent mes- 
sengers with gifts to the governor. Their attempts to conciliate the 
English, however, were in vain. 

109. Treaty soon broken. — Again they sent messengers with a 
large quantity of wampum as a present to the governor and council. 
A treaty of peace was concluded, to which the Pequots readily 
agreed. It was not long, however, before the treacherous Indians 
commenced again their brutal murders. A severe war now ensued- 
The Pequots, in June, 1636, attacked Fort Saybrook, In which were 
about twenty men. The attacking party numbered one hundred 
and fifty. The firing of a cannon from the fort produced such 
deadly execution among the Indians, huddled together as they 
were, that they soon retreated, leaving their dead and wounded, 
about twenty In number, behind them. In this attack the English 
sustained no loss. 

110. War general. — Soon after this, Captain Endicott proceeded 
against Block Island, which was Inhabited by Pequots, killed many 
Indians, destroyed their wigwams and supplies, and then sailed 
away to the Connecticut coast. The Indians on the mainland at 
once made cruel war upon the English. The Connecticut Colony 
suffered most. Troops were sent from Massachusetts to aid In the 
contest. Roger Williams, of Rhode Island, performed heroic service 



70 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1636-1643 



at this critical juncture. Alone and unarmed, he travelled more 
than twenty miles through the wilderness to the Narragansetts, and 
at the risk of his life entreated them not to join the Pequots in their 
war against the English. He succeeded in persuading them to keep 
the peace. 

111. War continued. — The English now showed no mercy. The 
war continued through 1636 and the spring and early summer of 
1637. ^^^^ report of the unprovoked cruelties and savage barbar- 
ities of the Pequots roused the other colonies to the most spirited 

exertions. Massachusetts determined 
to send two hundred men, and Ply- 
mouth Colony forty more, to assist 
in prosecuting the war. A severe en- 
gagement took place in May, near 
P'ort Saybrook, on the Connecticut. 
Several engagements followed, with 
terrible results to the Indians. A se- 
vere battle took place in the latter 
part of May, 1637, i"'^^^' Groton. The 
Indians were encamped in a thick 
swamp, but they were surrounded by 
the English and their Indian allies, 
and after a severe engagement the wigwams were set on fire, 
and but few Indians escaped. Eighty wigwams were burned and 
upwards of eight hundred Indians destroyed. The loss of the 
PZnglish was comparatively small, not exceeding twenty-five killed 
and wounded. 

112. Results. — The war had been a terrible one. It was char- 
acterized by much personal bravery. A large proportion of the 
several colonies were put to great and immediate danger; but 
they were so resolute that although greatly outnumbered by the 
Indians, they were entirely successful, and the Indians were utterly 
vanquished. By the bravery and unconquerable resolution of less 
than one hundred men, Connecticut was saved and the most war- 
like tribe of Indians in New England completely exterminated. A 
league called the United Colonies of New England was formed in 
1643 (IT 189). 




Indian Snow Shoes. 



I66I-I675] 



PHILIP OF POKANOKET. 



71 



CHAPTER XVII. 



PHILIP OF POKANOKET. 



113. The Pokanokets. — In the early history of New England the 
Wampanoags, or Pokanokets, were a strong and numerous tribe of 
Indians, occupying considerable territory in the southeastern part 
of Massachusetts, and in Rhode Island, 
bordering upon Narragansett Bay. For 
forty years after the settlement of Ply- 
mouth the chief or king of this tribe 
was the good Massasoit. His home was 
at Sowams, which is the site of the 
present town of Warren, Rhode Island. 
The whole region was called Pokano- 
ket. Massasoit was always friendly to 
the whites, and gave shelter to Roger 
Williams during those fourteen weeks 
of winter weather (TF 66}. 

114. King Philip. — Philip, the son of 
Massasoit, became the sachem of his 
tribe about 1661. From that time, for 
fourteen years he was constantly en- 
gaged in plotting against the whites. 
Again and again was he charged with 
conspiracy against them, which he invariably denied. He fre- 
quently made treaties and affected friendship with the whites, only 
to break his promises and renew his plottings. Philip made stren- 
uous efforts to secure the aid of the Narragansett tribe, living in 
Rhode Island. He determined upon the annihilation of the English 
at all hazards. He was a man of great courage, strong will, and 
invincible determination. 

115. The War begun. — The first blow fell upon the people of 
Swansea, on Thursday, June 24, 1675. For more than a year the 
savages carried on their aggressive warfare, skulking here and 
there, pouncing upon unarmed citizens, burning towns, and killing 



The settlers of Plymouth were 
very fortunate in tliat the Indians did 
not disturb them during the terrors 
of the first winter. In fact, they saw 
nothing of them, and it was not until 
the next spring that they were terrified 
by the sight of an Indian approacliing 
the village. The fear was partially 
relieved by the first words which he 
uttered: "Welcome, Englishmen." 
This Indian was Samoset, .who had 
learned to speak a little English from 
some fishermen along the coast of 
Maine. Samoset proved a true friend 
indeed to the colonists, and was in the 
habit of mingling freely with them. 
He brought the chief of the Indians 
of the vicinity, named Massasoit, to 
visit the village, and Governor Brad- 
ford was able to make a treaty with 
him. This treaty was kept by both 
parties; and in spite of a few hostile 
threats, the Indians did not attack 
Plymouth for about fifty years. 



72 



ES1ABLI<,HMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



[1675 



with merciless cruelty men, women, and children alike. The towns 
destroyed and injured were scattered over Massachusetts and Rhode 
Island, extending from Taunton, Swansea, and Rehoboth on the one 
side, to Springfield, Northampton, and Deerfield on the other. 

116. The Great Swamp Fight. — The Narragansetts finally joined 
Philip, and fortified themselves in a great fort situated within a 

swamp in Rhode Island. Here, in 
December, 1675, the Indians were at- 
tacked by a large body of troops from 
the several New England colonies. The 
contest was long and bloody, but the 




Indians were completely de- 
stroyed. Their wigwams, num- 
bering at least five hundred, were 
burned. Their corn, stores, and 
utensils, with many of their men, 
women, and children perished in '^^^ ^^^^^^^ °" Brookfieid, Mass. 

the flames. More than a thousand Indians were killed. It was 
the greatest defeat the Indians had ever sustained. 

117. The Final Struggle. — Philip was now hunted from place to 
place. His followers had either been overcome in battle or had 
deserted him, until he was left with but a handful of his former 



1676] 



PHILIP OF POKANOKET. 



7?> 



At length 



he took 



refuge near 



his old home at Mount 



army. 

Hope. There, in August, 1676, he was attacked by Captain 
Church with a small body of colonists, and the heart of the great 
chieftain was pierced by the ball of an Indian. The great contest 
was ended by the capture of Philip's only remaining general, 
Annawan, by Captain Church. The 
capture of Annawan was accom- 
plished by a bold stratagem, and 
the account of it reads like a tale 
from the "Arabian Nights." 

118. The Cost of the War. —Thus 
King Philip's War was ended. The 
amount of suffering which it had 
occasioned was enormous. At least 
thirteen towns were wholly de- 
stroyed, and a number of others 
sustained more or less damage. 
Over six hundred of the colonists 
fell in battle, and many more were 
wounded. Scarcely a family could 
be found in which some one had 
not suffered. The principal burden fell upon Massachusetts and 
Plymouth. The loss in property was not less than half a million 
of dollars, — a large sum for those days, and as great in proportion 
as the cost of the Revolutionary War was for the nation a hundred 
years later. More than six hundred buildings had been consumed 
by fire. It was years before some of the towns were rebuilt. 

119. The Result. — This struggle was the most severe that the 
colonies experienced with the natives at any time. It was really 
a case of life or death. Had Philip succeeded, he would have 
swept out of existence every white man in New England. After 
the contest was over, the settlers had a long period for rest and 
recuperation. 




King Philip. 

(After an old anonymous print.) 




|<in^ Philip's Helo7eK 



74 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1524-1664 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

NEW FRANCE. 

120. France in America. — The history of the French in America 
,s an interesting one. The French people, at a very early date, 
manifested their interest in securing for France a strong foothold 
in the New World. 

121. Verrazano was sent out by the French king in 1524, to find 
the new way to the East Indies. He coasted along our shore from 
the Carolinas to New York and Newport. He named the country 
New France (H 16). 

122. James Cartier discovered the St. Lawrence River in 1534. 
The next year, on a second voyage, he ascended the river as far as 
the site of Montreal. The lofty hill back of the Indian village he 
named Mount Royal (IT 17). 

123. John Ribault, under the patronage of Coligny, established 
a colony in 1562, at Port Royal, South Carolina. The people 
erected a fort, which they named Carolana. After extreme suffer- 
ing they abandoned the settlement and returned to Europe (IT 19). 

124. Laudonniere, in 1564, with three ships, landed at the harbor 
now known as St. Augustine, coasted to the north, entered the 
river St. John's, which he called the River of May, and built a 
fort (t 20). The next year the Spaniards, under Menendez, sur- 
prised the garrison and put them to the sword; only a few persons, 
including Laudonniere, escaped by flight. Menendez was a Span- 
iard, and his settlement at St. Augustine becoming permanent, 
Florida became Spanish territory. The French were, however, 
more successful at the North than at the South. 

125. Samuel Champlain ascended the St. Lawrence in two small 
barks in 1603, and was captivated by the beauties of the country 
and the attractions of the great river. He was seized with a long- 
ing to plant a French empire and the Catholic faith in this New 
World. 

126. Pierre de Monts, with Champlain, explored the Bay of Fundy, 
visited and named the river St. John, wintered on a little island at 



1605-1700] NEW FRANCE. 75 

the mouth of the river St. Croix, and in the summer of 1605 
founded the colony at Port Royal, Nova Scotia. This was the first 
permanent French settlement in America. It was three years before 
the first settlement in Canada, and two years before that of James- 
town, Virginia. 

Champlain made another voyage in 1608, and established ths 
first permanent French settlement in Canada, at Quebec. The 
next year he discovered the beautiful lake which bears his name. 
He succeeded in establishing the authority of France in the Valley 
of the St. Lawrence. He has been styled " The Father of New 
France." 

The Valley of the Mississippi was early explored by French 
Jesuit priests, and many of the French names still found in that 
valley were first given by these priests more than two centuries 
ago. 

127. Father Marquette, in 1673, floated in a birch-bark canoe 
down the Wisconsin and the Mississippi rivers as far south as the 
mouth of the Arkansas. 

128. The Chevalier de La Salle undertook various expeditions, 
vvhich, though often filled with hardships, were also full of roman- 
tic adventures. He was inspired with a strong desire to find the 
outlet of the Mississippi River; and in 1682, he succeeded in float- 
ing down that river to its very mouth, where it emptied its waters 
into the Gulf of Mexico. It was La Salle that named this whole 
country Louisiana, in honor of his king, Louis XIV. 

129. French Explorers. — Before the year 1700, the French ex- 
plorers, led by such men as La Salle, Joliet, Father Hennepin, and 
Father Marquette, had explored the Great Lakes, and the Fox, 
Maumee, Wabash, Wisconsin, and Illinois rivers, and the Missis- 
sippi from the Falls of St. Anthony to the Gulf. They had trav- 
ersed the valley region from Newfoundland up the Valley of the 
St. Lawrence, through the Great Lakes, down the Mississippi Rivei 
and its branches, and westward to Texas. They had planted here 
and there in the wilderness rude settlements, and later they erected 
a line of forts, extending through the two valleys of these two great 
rivers. 

130. New France. — This whole region, comprising both valleys, — 
that is, the Valley of the St. Lawrence and the whole country be- 



76 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1682 

tween the AUeghanies and the Rocky Mountains, — they had taken 
possession of in the name of the French king, and had named it 
New France. Meanwhile, the Enghsh had made larger, stronger, 
and more permanent settlements along the Atlantic coast, occupy- 
ing but a narrow strip, which extended from Maine to Georgia. 
At about this time, these English colonies contained probably two 
hundred thousand inhabitants ; while the whole of New France 
possessed a population of perhaps not more than ten thousand. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

FRANCE VERSUS ENGLAND. 

131. The Mouth of the Mississippi. — It was a beautiful spring day 
in 1682, when La Salle reached the mouth of the Mississippi, and 
found that this great river emptied its waters into the Gulf of 
Mexico. Then he set up a rude wooden cross bearing the arm^i 
of France, and with volleys of musketry and loud shouts of " God 
save the King ! " took possession in the name of France of all that 
vast territory watered by the Mississippi and its tributaries. The 
extent of this region was then unknown, but it i'.icluded all the 
country from the AUeghanies to the Rocky Mountains, and ex- 
tended from the torrid gulf upon the south to the Great Lakes of 
the north. This wide expanse was twice as large as all France, 
Spain, Great Britain, and Germany combined. La Salle was a loyal 
subject of his king and a faithful son of his church. It was, there- 
fore, with commendable pride that he dedicated this fertile garden 
in the heart of the new world to the church and to his king. He 
named the whole region Louisiana; but the general name which 
was applied to all the French possessions in America, including 
both this section and Canada, was New France. 

132. French Hopes — From what we have learned, it will readily 
be seen that the French pioneers were bold, energetic, and enter- 
prising, and that they had great expectations for the future of New 
France in America. 

133. The English and the French. — It cannot be supposed that 
Great Britain and her colonies in America could look with much 



1689] KING William's war. 77 

complacency upon these vigorous efforts of the Frenchmen to 
secure for their country such a wide region. But, meanwhile, the 
English colonists in the east had done little or nothing toward 
exploring and occupying additional territory. They contented 
themselves with holding their first settlements along the Atlantic 
coast. The Alleghany Mountains formed a natural barrier between 
their homes and the French forts in the Mississippi Valley. What 
France had secured, she was thoroughly determined to retain. This 
is evident from the long line of forts which had been built since 
La Salle had made his explorations from the Lakes to the Gulf 
In the Old World the English and the French nations had long 
been natural enemies to each other. The grasping intentions of 
France in America did not tend to make the English any more 
friendly to the French. The natural antipathy between the two 
nationalities was quite as strong in America as in Europe. 

134. The Indians. — The English settlements, as we have seen, 
had much trouble with the Indians. The Pequot War, and espe- 
cially King Philip's War, had brought about a chronic state of 
alienation and hostility between the two races. On the other hand, 
the French priests had won the good-will of the Indians in their sec- 
tion of the country. War broke out between the rival colonies in 
1689, and the contest then begun extended, with intervals of peace, 
over seventy years. The final settlement between the two nations 
brought conditions of permanent peace only by the absolute triumph 
of one party and the total annihilation of the other. The long, pro- 
tracted struggle for supremacy on this continent was in reality one 
war, but it was divided into four parts, and is therefore generally 
denominated in the histories. The Four French and Indian Wars. 



CHAPTER XX. 

KING WILLIAM'S, QUEEN ANNE'S, AND KING GEORGE'S WARS. 

135. Four French Wars. — These four wars were all carried on 
between Great Britain and the English colonies of North America 
on the one side, and France, with her American colonies and Indian 
allies, on the other side. When the war first broke out in 1689, 



78 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



[1690 



William and Mary had just become king and queen of Great 
Britain. The first of the four wars took place within this reign, 
and is therefore usually denominated King William's War. Queen 
Anne came to the throne in 1 702, and the second war, occurring 
during her reign, is hence called Queen Anne's War. King George 
[. ascended the throne of Great Britain in 1 714, and George II. 

in 1727. George II. reigned until 1760, 
when he was succeeded by George III. 
The third of these wars is called King 
George's War ; and the fourth and final 
contest — which was the most impor- 
tant, and really the decisive one — 
has usually been called the French and 
Indian War. 



Hannah Dustin. — The first house 
attacked in Haveiliill was that of 
Thomas Dustin, and the Indians car- 
ried off Mrs. Dustin, her babe, and 
nurse. The house was burned; and 
she, rising from her sick bed, was 
obliged to hasten away with her savage 
captors. When one of the captives 
became weary, ci lagged in the march, 
he was immediately tomahawked and 
abandoned. Though her babe was 
killed and she herself was weak from 
illness, Hannah Dustin travelled a 
dozen miles that day. In spite of the 
keen March wind, she was able to keep 
on with her savage captors through 
snow, ice, and mud. Finally their long 
march was ended, and their last halt 
was made at a small island at the 
mouth of the Contoocook River. She 
was assigned as a slave to an Indian 
family of twelve persons, — two stout 
men, three women, and seven children. 
She remained on the island five weeks. 
On the night of the last day of April, 
Mrs. Dustin, her nurse, and a boy who 
was with them, killed the Indians 
while asleep. Then gathering up what 
stock of provisions the wigwam af- 
forded, she took her master's gun and 
the tomahawk with which she had killed 
him. Scuttling the canoes, except one 
for their own use, they embarked in it 
down the Merrimac River. After a 
hundred miles' journey, Mrs. Dustin 
reached her home and presented her- 
self to her friends, who had given her 
up for dead. 



KING WILLIAM'S WAR. 

136. The War begun. — This war was 
begun by the eastern Indians, who were 
allies of the French. Their first attacks 
were upon the settlements in Maine 
and New Hampshire. They destroyed 
Dover ( IF 63), and carried away many 
prisoners to Canada. They captured 
Fort Pemaquid, and massacred many 
inhabitants living on the Salmon Falls 
River and around Casco Bay. In 1690 
certain settlements in New York were 
attacked. At Schenectady sixty per- 
sons were massacred, and many captives 
were taken. The English now raised an 
army, and under command of General 
Winthrop marched against Montreal ; 
another force from Boston, in charge 
of Sir William Phlps, sailed away for Quebec. Both these expe- 
ditions were failures, except that Phips captured Port Royal. 

137. The Five Nations. — The war would have proved far more 
destructive to the English than it did had it not been for the friend- 
ship of those Indians who were called the Five Nations. New 



I684-I707] 



QUEEN ANNE S WAR 



79 



York had made a treaty with them in 1684, and the same year the 
French governor of Canada had sent an expedition against them 
which had failed. In 1691 Major Schuyler persuaded the Indians 
of the Five Nations to join him in an attack upon the French 
settlements. He did much damage to the French, but was finally 
compelled to retreat. In 1697 the French and Indians attacked 
Haverhiil in Massachusetts, and killed or captured forty persons. 
It is in connection with this attack on Haverhill that the thrilling 
incident of Mrs. Dustin's capture and escape is recorded. King 
William's War was ended in 1697 by a treaty of" peace which was 
signed at Ryswick, in Holland. By this treaty both parties retained 
the same territories as before the war. 



QUEEN ANNE'S WAR. 

138. A New Contest. — Five years only elapsed before the peace of 
Ryswick was broken by a war between England on the one side and 
France and Spain on the other. The war soon involved the col- 
onies in America, and this contest was known as Queen Aniic's War. 
,^ In the South the struggle was between the English 
of South Carolina and the Spaniards of Florid:.. 

139. Horrors of the 
War. — ^The real horrors 
of the war were, however, 
confined almost entirely 
to the New England col- 
onies. In 1/04 Deerfield, 
in Massachusetts, was 
sacked, and the inhabi- 
tants massacred. Those 
who escaped death were 
carried captive to Can- 
ada. In 1707 an expe- 
dition was fitted out in 
New England against 
Port Royal in Acadia. This expedition proved a failure; but three 
years later another attempt was successful. Port Royal was captured, 
and the country became a British province under the name of Nova 
Scotia. A futile effort was made against Montreal and Quebec in 




llliiiiiiililliiilllllllh) lllllllli Sik'ii 



An old House at Deerfield, Ma^s. 



8o ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1711-1748 

i/ii. The war was ended in 171 3 by the treaty of Utrecht. No 
change of territory resulted from this war, except the transfer of 
Acadia, or Nova Scotia, to the EngHsh. 

140. The French at the West. — This war had seriously interfered 
with the progress of the French in the West, but, during the period 
of peace which followed, France was particularly active in the Mis- 
sissippi Valley. The city of New Orleans was founded in 171 8 and 
made the capital of all Louisiana. A colony had previously been 
planted at Mobile, which was now rapidly becoming a place of 
Importance. The French power was firmly establishing itself in 
the Northwest. Fort Niagara was built in 1728, Crown Point in 
1 73 1, and an important post was later established at Vincennes. 
Before 1750, the French had control of all the water-ways between 
the Lakes and the Gulf. Their military stations between Lake 
Ontario and New Orleans were more than sixty in number, indi- 
cating the grand design of France to found a great empire which 
should include the Valley of the St. Lr.wrence, the country around 
the Great Lakes, and the Valley of the Mississippi. 

KING 'GEORGE'S WAR. 

141. The Third War. — These schemes of the French were again 
interrupted by the outbreak of King George's War, in 1744. Like 
the two preceding contests, this war began in Europe, but soon 
extended to the colonies in North America. The war was of short 
duration. The most important event in it was the capture of Louis- 
burg, on Cape Breton Island. General Pepperell, a native of Maine, 
in command of more than three thousand troops from New England, 
and assisted by a British fleet under command of Admiral Warren, 
captured this place in June, 1745. The history of this contest is 
interesting, but the results of the capture were not important. The 
French failed in two attempts to reconquer Cape Breton Island. 
King George's War was brought to an end by the treaty of Aix- 
la-Chapelle, in 1748. All places taken by either party from the 
other during the war were, by this treaty, to be restored. Accord- 
ingly the French again came into possession of Louisburg and Cape 
Breton Island. 



1749-1754] 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 



8i 



CHAPTER XXL 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 



George Washington at this early 
age possessed those qualities wliich in 
later life made him so famous. He was 
already a skilful surveyor, and an officer 
in the Virginia militia. He was wonder- 
fully strong and athletic. He could out- 
run, outleap, outride all the young men 
of his acquaintance. Many instances 
are told of his youthful prowess and 
athletic accomplishments. Moreover, 
he was brave, honest, dutiful to his 
parents, and loyal to the government. 
The journey which Washington was 
obliged to make with these despatches 
was a hazardous one. He reached the 
French forts, and was treated with 
great courtesy. The French officers 
were evidently much impressed with 
Washington's sagacity and ability. The 
return trip was even more dangerous. 
Washington narrowly escaped drown- 
ing in the Alleghany River, and nearly 
lost his life at the hands of a hostile 
Indian. On his arrival at Williams- 
burg, the Virginia capital, the story of 
his adventures and escape greatly inter- 
ested and aroused the Virginia officers. 



142. The Final Struggle. — Now comes the last of the four 
Indian Wars in America. The three which we have already 
considered originated in Europe. This, which was the final and 
decisive contest, has been usually denominated " The French and 
Indian War." It was occasioned by 
the still unsettled boundaries of the 
English and French colonies in North 
America. Both France and England 
were ambitious to secure absolute do- 
minion of this whole continent. In 
1749 King George II. granted a large 
tract of land on the Ohio River to a 
company of merchants styled the Ohio 
Company. In 1752 this company en- 
deavored to establish themselves on the 
Monongahela River, south of the pres- 
ent Pittsburg. Their agents were seized 
by the French and detained as pris- 
oners in their fort. Soon after this the 
French began a line of fortifications in 
that region. The governor of Virginia 
remonstrated, claiming that the terri- 
tory was within the charter limits of his 
colony. George Washington, then but 
twenty-one years of age, was the bearer of despatches from Governor 
Dinwiddie of Virginia to the commander of these French forts. 

143. Fort Du Quesne. — In 1754 Washington was again sent 
to the frontier at the head of a body of Virginia troops, with 
the rank of major, under orders to dislodge the French. They 
had built a fort at the junction of the two rivers which form the 
Ohio, where Pittsburg now stands. This fort the French called 
Fort Du Quesne. It was too strong to be captured by his small 



82 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



[1755 



force, yet Washington succeeded in surprising and defeating a party 
of their troops, and brought on the war which the French wished 
to defer. He was finally attacked by a superior force and obliged 
to retire from the disputed territory. 

144. Union of Colonies. — The British government advised the colo- 
nies to unite for the common defence. A colonial congress was 
accordingly held at Albany with delegates from the four New Eng- 
land colonies, and New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. Benjamin 

Franklin drew up a plan of union which 
was adopted by the congress, but was 
rejected both by Great Britain and the 
colonies themselves. The colonies ob- 
jected because it gave too much power 
to the British government; Great Bri- 
tain objected because it gave too much 
power to the colonies. Nothing re- 
mained, therefore, but that war should 
be carried on by British forces aided 
by such troops as the several colonies 
might furnish. 

145. General Braddock. — The British 
placed General Braddock in command 
of the forces of America. He planned 
three expeditions; one against P^or^ 
Du Ouesne, which he himself was to 
command, another against Fort Niagara 
under command of General Shirley, and 
the third under Sir William Johnson, 
against Crown Point. Great prepara- 
tions were now made by the various col- 
onies, which raised troops and furnished 
supplies for these several expeditions. 

146. Expedition against Acadia. — In 
May, 1755, an expedition was fitted out 

at Boston against the French people of Acadia in New Brunswick. 
The French inhabitants of that country were seized and carried by 
British officers away from their homes and distributed among the 
English colonies. There were about eight thousand of these simple- 



Benjamin Franklin was one of the 
most prominent characters of his time. 
He was born in Boston, in January, 
170^. Being tlie youngest of a large 
family, his father took him from school 
at the age of ten years to work in his 
shop, cutting wicks and filling moulds 
for candles. The boy was a great 
reader. " Robinson Crusoe " and " Pil- 
grim's Progress" were his early favor- 
ites. When he was seventeen years 
old he went to Philadelphia, and was 
employed in a printing-office. 

He edited and published " The 
Pennsylvania Gazette," and the arti- 
cles written by himself became so pop- 
ular that the paper yielded him a 
comfortable income. He became fa- 
mous throughout the world by a col- 
lection of wit and wisdom, couched in 
quaint and pithy language, and pub- 
lished as " Poor Richard's Almanac." 
He invented a famous " open stove for 
the better warming of rooms," and dis- 
covered the important fact that light- 
ning is identical with the electricity in 
a Leyden jar from an electrical machine. 
He was made postmaster of Philadel- 
phia when he was little more than thirty 
years of age, and later he organized the 
mail postal system of the colonies, and 
was made deputy postmaster-general of 
the whole country. From the very be- 
ginning of the difficulties between the 
colonies and the mother country, he 
became a conspicuous figure in conti- 
nental politics. 



1756] 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 




CADIA. 



minded peasants who were dispossessed of their property and dis- 
persed along the Atlantic Coast. This wholesale banishment haii 
been severely condemned, 
and all that can be said in 
its defence is that it was 
resorted to as the only 
sure means of holding 
this conquered country. 

147. Braddock's Defeat. 
— Braddock's expedition 
against Fort Du Ouesne 
resulted in a disastrous 
defeat. The English gen- 
eral was totally unfamiliar 
with the Indian modes of 
warfare, and scornfully rejected the advice given him by young 
Washington as to the proper method of fighting Indians. The 
troops fell into an ambuscade, and Braddock was among the slain. 
Washington, with his Virginia troops, covered the retreat and saved 
the remnant of the army from annihilation. He retreated with what 
force remained to Philadelphia. 

148. Other Expeditions. — General Shirley's expedition against 
Fort Niagara was likewise unsuccessful, and accomplished nothing 
except to leave garrisons in two small forts which he erected. Sir 
William Johnson marched against Crown Point with a force of six 
thousand men. The first battle was favorable to the French, but 
after a desperate fight, in the " Battle of Lake George," the French 
were defeated. Johnson did not, however, consider his force strong 
enough to attack Crown Point. He therefore built a fort on Lake 
George, which he called P'ort William Henry, left a garrison there, 
as well as at Fort Edward, and returned to Albany. 

149. War declared. — In May, 1756. a formal declaration of war 
was made between France and Great Britain. The French ap- 
pointed General Montcalm commander of their forces. The English 
government sent over Lord Loudon to command the forces of Great 
Britain and her colonies. In August of that year, Montcalm, with 
six thousand French troops and Indian allies, captured Fort Ontario 
pn the Oswego River, and fourteen hundred men were compelled to 



84 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [l757-I758 



WESTERN 

:nnsylv 



surrender. They gave up one hundred and thirty-five cannon, a 
large amount of military stores, and many vessels upon the lake. 
This was a severe blow to the cause of the English, and broke up 
the whole plan of the campaign. 

150. English Disasters. — The next year, 1757, was full of disas- 
ters to the English. Montcalm, with a large force numbering eight 
thousand French and Indians, captured Fort William Henry and 
about two. thousand men. By the terms of capitulation the Eng- 
lish were promised a safe escort to 
Fort Edward, but the Indians carried 
on a wholesale plunder and massa- 
cred a large number of the English 
troops. Lord Loudon with a strong 
force set out on an expedition against 
Louisburg on the island of Cape 
Breton, but got no farther than Hal- 
ifax. It was soon evident that this 
British officer did not possess the re- 
quisite qualities for a commander of 
so large a force. About this time 
William Pitt, the famous British 
statesman, became Secretary of State 
for Foreign Affairs, and entered upon 
the American campaign with great 
vigor. ■ He removed Lord Loudon 
and placed General Abercrombie in 
command of the forces in this coun- 
try. Additional troops were raised 
and sent over. When Abercrombie 
took command in America he found 

himself at the head of fifty thousand troops, more than half of 
whom had been raised by the colonies. He planned three expe- 
ditions; one against Louisburg, another against Crown Point and 
Ticonderoga, and the third against Fort Du Quesne. 

151. Louisburg. — The expedition against Louisburg was made in 
the summer of 1758. Admiral Boscawen brought over from Eng- 
land, in a large fleet, a force of twelve thousand men with General 
Amherst in command, and General Wolfe, who later was the leader 




1758] THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 85 

of the English forces which captured Quebec, second in command. 
The French garrison numbered about half the English force, and after 
a brave resistance it was compelled to surrender. Both the Island 
of Cape Breton and Prince Edward's Island fell into the hands of 
the English with a large quantity of supplies and warlike material. 

152. Ticonderoga. — At Ticonderoga the English were less suc- 
cessful. General Abercrombie attacked the fort in July with a large 
force numbering not less than fifteen thousand. The French garri- 
son could not muster one-third of that number, but the commander 
was no other than the Marquis Montcalm, a brave and gallant sol- 
dier. Before the English army had a chance to approach the 
fort, the French general came out and attacked it. By constant 
skirmishing with the English he delayed the final engagement for 
several days. At length Abercrombie made a general assault upon 
the fort, determined to capture it at all hazards ; but, although his 
army was greatly superior in numbers, he was repulsed with a loss 
of full two thousand men, and compelled to retreat to Lake George. 
The English and colonial forces under command of General Brad- 
street captured Fort Frontenac at the outlet of Lake Ontario, 
where Kingston now stands. At this place a number of war vessels 
and more than fifty cannon with other stores and munitions fell into 
the hands of the English. 

153. Fort Pitt. — The third expedition planned by the English 
and their colonies was against Fort Du Quesne. This was a stra- 
tegic point of much importance (if 143). The English forces were 
under command of General Forbes and numbered about nine 
thousand men. Colonel VV^ashington with his Virginia troops had 
the post of honor as the advance-guard. On their arrival at the 
fort they found that it had been abandoned. The French, be- 
fore retreating, had burned the fort and its contents. The occa- 
sion of their withdrawal was that their forces had from time to 
time been reduced until they were too weak to resist an attack 
from the British and American army. Soon after a new fort was 
erected at this place and named Fort Pitt in honor of the British 
statesman. 

The next year another change of commanders took place. 
General Amherst was given the command of all the English forces 
in America. Again three expeditions were devised ; General Wolfe 



86 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



L1759 




was to attack Quebec, General Amherst was to make another effort 
to capture Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and General Prideaux 
was to capture Niagara and then march against Montreal. 

154. Battle of Quebec. — The army of General Wolfe, which sailed 
up the St. Lawrence in forty war vessels, numbered from eight to 

ten thousand regulars of the British 
army. It was the twenty-seventh ot 
June when he landed on an island a 
few miles below Quebec. The French 
garrison was principally composed of 
a militia force of Canadians. The reg- 
ular troops probably did not number 
more than two thousand, with full ten 
thousand of the militia. From this 
point. General Wolfe for more than a 
month made various attempts to press 
the siege of Quebec, all of which were unsuccessful. Meantime, 
Montcalm strengthened himself by drawing off forces from other 
points. The consequence was that General Amherst was able to 
capture Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which surrendered in July. 
At Niagara, also, the British were successful, after a brief siege in 
which General Prideaux was killed. 

155. The Supreme Moment. — Now all interest centred at Quebec. 
The destiny of the whole continent hung in the balance. It was t/ie 
supreme moment in Ameriean history. If the French had succeeded 
and the English had been defeated, the continent would inevitably 
have remained under the domination of France. North America 
would doubtless have been French to-day, and not English. On 
the other hand, if the English captured the town, it would prove 
the death-knell of France in this country. Montcalm was a brave 
and a distinguished general. Wolfe, still a young man, was equally 
brave and skilful. The two armies were large ; and as the delay 
continued, the French steadily strengthened their position, and 
their army became more efficient. Wolfe, through the month of 
August, continued his camp at Montmorenci below the city. Early 
in September he withdrew from this point, and a portion of his 
forces occupied Point Levi while the others took up their quarters 
at the point of Orleans. 



1759] 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 



87 



156. The Final Blow. — -When the British broke camp at Mont- 
morenci, abandoned their intrenchments, and re-embarked their 
forces on vessels, removing their heaviest pieces of artillery from 
Point Levi, the French general, considering the lateness of the 
season, believed the English were about to raise the siege and 
sail away. He thought that this attempt of the English had 
failed. Montcalm, however, was constantly on the alert; no pre- 
caution was spared. He increased his forces above Quebec, and 
ordered a sharp watch of the entire shore. The heights near the 




Quebec. 



town, — called the Plains 
of Abraham, — where his 
principal forces were in- -^^ 
trenched, were considered 
inaccessible. Montcalm 

himself believed them safe. He thought the English could not 
reach these heights unless they had wings. Of the very place 
where they afterwards landed, he said, " a hundred men posted 
there would stop their whole army." Two weeks elapsed be- 
fore the final blow was struck. The main body of the British 
was above the city. On the night of September 12th, they 
floated down the river in boats and landed at the foot of the 
abrupt precipice. 

157. Heights of Abraham. — It was a still night, and there was 
no moon. Slowly and cautiously the British crawled up the rugged 
path; and at dawn, September ISth, 1759, Montcalm beheld the 



88 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



[1759 



army of his enemy drawn up in battle array on the Heights of 
Abraham. The battle was a severe one. It lasted for many 
hours. At ten o'clock Wolfe saw that the crisis was near. A ter- 
rific onslaught ensued. Wolfe led the charge at the head of the 
Louisburg grenadiers. His wrist was shattered, but he wrapped 
his handkerchief about it and kept on. A second shot struck 

him, but he still advanced. A third ball 
lodged in his breast. He staggered 
and sat on the ground. A few moments 
after, one of them cried, " Tney run; 
see how they run!" "Who run?" 
demanded Wolfe. "The enemy, sir; 
they give way everywhere." " Go, one 
of you, to Colonel Burton," returned 
the dying man ; " tell him to march 
Webb's regiment down to Charles 
River to cut off their retreat from the 
bridge." Then, turning on his side, 
he murmured, *' Now God be praised, 
I will die in peace;" and in a few mo- 
ments his life had ebbed away. Mont- 
calm, still on his horse, was borne with 
the tide of his retreating troops toward 
the town. Before reaching the gate, 
a shot passed through his body. He 
was carried into the city. When the 
surgeon told him that his wound was 
mortal, he replied, '* So much the bet- 
ter; for then I shall not live to see the 
surrender of Quebec." 

It was still five days before the city 
surrendered. On the square before the 
castle of St. Louis, many years afterward, a monument was erected 
to the joint memory of Wolfe and Montcalm, who both gave up 
their lives in the great battle which settled the destiny of all North 
America. 



General Wolfe. — Parkman, in 
" Montcalm and Wolfe," gives the 
following graphic description of the 
scene : — 

" For full two hours the proces- 
sion of boats, borne on the current, 
steered silently down the St. Lawrence. 
The stars were visible, but the night 
was moonless and sufficiently dark. 
The General was in one of the fore- 
most boats, and near him was a young 
midshipman, John Robison, who used 
to tell in his later life how Wolfe, with 
a low voice, repeated Gray's ' Elegy in 
a Country Churchyard ' to the officers 
about him. Probably it was to re- 
lieve the intense strain of his thoughts. 
Among the rest was the verse which 
his own fate was soon to illustrate, — 
* The paths of glory lead but to the grave.' 

" 'Gentlemen,' he said, as his reci- 
tal ended, ' I would rather have written 
those lines than take Quebec' None 
were there to tell him that the hero 
is greater than the poet. 

" The dead stillness was suddenly 
broken by the sharp Qui vive ! of a 
French sentry, invisible in the thick 
gloom ^ France f answered a High- 
land officer of Eraser's regiment from 
one of the boats of the light infantry. 
He had served in Holland, and spoke 
French fluently. 

^" A quel regiment ? ' 

"■' De la Reine^ replied the High- 
lander. The sentry was satisfied, and 
did not ask for the password." 



1763] TREATY OF 1763. 89 

CHAPTER XXII. 

TREATY OF 1763. 

158. The War ended. — The fall of Quebec practically determined 
the result of the war. The next year the French made an attempt 
to recapture the city, but the timely arrival of a large force from 
England prevented the success of this undertaking. Soon after, 
Montreal and all Canada submitted to British domination. The 
treaty of peace, however, was delayed until 1763. 

159. A New Map of North America. — This treaty made great 
changes in the political map of North America. Up to this time 
Spain had held Florida, Mexico, and Central America. The entire 
valley of the Mississippi from the AUeghanies to the Rocky Moun- 
tains, and the entire valley of the St. Lawrence, including all now 
known as British America, belonged to France. Previous to this 
time the British colonies comprised only a narrow strip between the 
Atlantic and the Alleghany Mountains extending from Maine to 
Georgia. 

160. France shut out from North America. — By this treaty the 
occupancy of almost the whole continent was changed. Spain 
ceded Florida to Great Britain ; France gave up New Orleans and 
the province of Louisiana to Spain. This province included all that 
territory which lies between the Mississippi River and the Rocky 
Mountains. France ceded to Great Britain all Canada, and the 
French power was thus swept from the continent. Only two small 
islands near Newfoundland were retained by France as fishing 
stations. This change practically extended the English colonies 
westward to the Mississippi River, and the British flag floated 
over the whole country from Florida to the Arctic Ocean. 

161. England overshot the Mark. — This was a proud moment for 
England, but she had gone too far: her success was too great; her 
pride must have a downfall. The French statesman, Vergennes, 
was then ambassador from France to Constantinople. This saga- 
cious and experienced diplomatist, on hearing the conditions of the 
treaty, said: " England will, ere long, repent of having removed the 



90 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. [1610-1690 

only check that could keep her colonies in awe. They stand no 
longer in need of her protection ; she will call on them to contribute 
towards supporting the burdens they have helped to bring on her; 
and they will answer by striking off all dependence." Yet even 
Vergennes could not foresee that but thirteen years would elapse 
before the *' Declaration of Independence " would be issued. 

162. Direct Effects upon the Colonies. — The war had been an ex- 
pensive one. It had cost the colonies more than $15,000,000. 
Only one-third of this sum was refunded to them by the British 
government. The Americans had lost thirty thousand men. The 
different colonies had suffered untold miseries from Indian barbari- 
ties. The men of Virginia and Massachusetts, of the Carolinas and 
New York, had fought shoulder to shoulder, and sectional jealousies 
were diminishing. Americans had learned to think and act for 
themselves, and dependence upon the mother country was thereby 
weakened. They had acquired a taste for liberty; they had learned 
to maintain their own rights. Their taxes, which were heavy, were 
paid without a murmur because levied by themselves. Above all, 
the French power, which they all had reason to fear, had been swept 
away; and the Spanish power was confined beyond the Mississippi. 
Moreover, the Americans had learned the art of war; and in all 
these various ways the English colonies, unknown to themselves, 
were being rapidly prepared for that independence which they 
neither desired nor expected, but which was shortly to come. 



CHRONOLOGY 

1610 France — Reign of Louis XIII. 

1637. New England — Pequot War. 

1643. France — Reign of Louis XIV. 

1673. Great Lakes — Explored by Marquette and JoHet. 

1675. New England — King Philip's War begun. 

1682. Mississippi River — Explored by La Salle. 

1685. England — Reign of James IL 

1689. England — Reign of William and Mary. 
King William's War begun. 

1690. New York — Schenectady burned by the Indians and French. 
Acadia — Capture of Port Royal. 



I697-I763] 



CHRONOLOGY. 



91 



1697. 
1700. 
1702. 

1710 
1713. 
1714. 
1715. 
1727. 
1739. 
1744. 
1745. 
1746. 
1748. 
1749. 
1753. 
1754. 

1755 



1756. 
1757. 
1758. 

1759. 

1760.. 
1762. 
1763. 



King William's War ended by Peace of Ryswick. 

Spain — Reign of Philip V. 

England — Reign of Anne. 

Queen Anne's War begun. 

Acadia — Second capture of Port Royal. 

Queen Anne's War ended by Treaty of Utrecht 

England — Reign of George I. 

France — Reign of Louis XV. 

England — Reign of George IL 

Georgia — Spanish War begun. 

King George's War begun. 

Louisburg — Captured by the Enghsh, June 17. 

Spain — Reign of Ferdinand VL 

King George's War ended by Treaty of Aix la Chapelle. 

Ohio Company formed. 

Washington — Sent out to warn away the French. 

Albany — Congress meets, June 19. 

Fort Necessity — Surrendered by Washington, July 4. 

Braddock — Defeated by the French, July 9. 

Acadians — Expulsion by the English. 

Lake George — French victory, September 8. 

French and Indian War formally declared. 

Oswego — French victory, August 14. 

William Pitt — Becomes head of the English Government. 

Fort William Henry — French victory, August 9. 

Ticonderoga — French victory, July 8. 

Louisburg— Captured by the English, July 27. 

Pittsburg — Captured by the English, November 25. 

Spain — Reign of Charles IIL 

Niagara — Captured by the English, July 25. 

Ticonderoga — Captured by the English, July 26. 

Plains of Abraham — English victory, September 13. 

Quebec— Captured by the English, September 18. 

England— Reign of George TIL 

Canada — Conquered by the English. 

Spain — Joins France in the War. 

Havana — Captured by the English, August. 

Pontiac's War begun. 

French and Indian War ended by Treaty of Paris, February 10 




Wdn- -'••'^x 



l3lacfiboarti analtSiiJt. 



fThe Settlers 



COLONIAL ^ 
LIIE 



Resources 



Education 



Religion 



Government 



Life 



Geography. 
Population. 
Nationality. 

Character of the Settlements. 
Classes. 
LServants. 

Plantations. 
Small Farms. 
Commerce. 
Navigation Acts. 
^Manufactures. 

^Schools. i 

Colleges. 

Printing. 

Professions. 
LTowN Meetings. 

Church of England, 
Puritans. 
Roger Williams. 
Quakers. 

Religious Freedom. 
, Superstition. 

Charter Colonies. 

Proprietary and Royal Colonies 

Colonial Government. 

Laws. 

New England Union. 

Andros. 

The Charters. 

Dress. 

Houses. 

Furniture. 

Food. 

Implements. 

Amusements. 

New England Sunday. 

Travel. 




VColonial Fireplace 



SECTION IV. 
COLONIAL LIFE. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



THE SETTLERS. 



163. Geography. — The geographical features of a country have 
much to do with forming the character of its inhabitants. The 
shores of New England were dangerous and uninviting, yet the 
good harbors, furnishing safe anchorage, attracted hardy fishermen 
and brave sailors. The shores of the Southern colonies were sandy 
and lacking in harbors, but the long slow rivers and the fertile 
banks aided in developing the great plantations. The whole coun- 
try was covered with dense forests, and, especially in the north, 
much labor was needed to prepare the land for cultivation. The 
long Appalachian range, running parallel with the shore, left a strip 
of land the whole length of the coast about a hundred miles wide. 
In certain respects no other shore in the world, it is said, furnishes 
so favorable an opportunity for colonization. The broad rivers of 
the Middle and Southern colonies provided the best means of travel, 
while the steep and rapid rivers of New England furnished water- 
power and helped to establish her manufactories. Climate and land 
aided in developing the hardy and energetic dwellers in New Eng- 
land, as well as the more delicate and quiet inhabitants of the 
Carolinas. 

161 Population. — The different colonies varied greatly in the 
rapidity of their growth. Virginia was the first to be settled, and 
therefore had to bear the hardships of pioneer life. Its population 



94 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 

was nearly sixty thousand at the close of the seventeenth century; 
during the next seventy-five years the growth was more rapid, 
and at the beginning of the Revolution there were perhaps half a 
million inhabitants in the colony. Massachusetts, settled thirteen 
years later, at first grew more rapidly than Virginia, and in 1 700 
had about seventy thousand people. Massachusetts did not keep 
pace with Virginia during the eighteenth century, partly owing to 
her small number of slaves; in 1775 she had a population of about 
three hundred thousand. Pennsylvania, another of the three 
most important colonies, had in 1775 a population midway 
between Virginia and Massachusetts. The settlers in the other 
colonies were less numerous, Maryland, Connecticut, New York, 
and the two Carolinas having a population averaging each about 
two hundred thousand, while New Jersey, New Hampshire, Rhode 
Island, Georgia, and Delaware had each less than one hundred 
thousand people. 

165. Nationality. — The thirteen English colonies were composed 
to a very great extent, of course, of emigrants from England ; but 
other European nations sent many of their sons and daughters to 
the shores of America, and their influence has been strongly felt in 
all the settlements. The four colonies of New England had among 
their numbers very few settlers of other nationalities, and the only 
foreign influence of importance that they felt was that of the Dutch. 
In the Southern colonies the English race was dominant, especially 
in Virginia and Maryland. In the Carolinas there was a large 
number of French Huguenots, who proved to be a valuable addition 
to the population. There were also many hardy Germans, a few 
thrifty Swiss, and some industrious ScotchTrlsh. The population 
of the Middle colonies did not possess so strong an English pre- 
dominance. The Dutch were the earliest settlers here, and they 
continued to be numerically strong in these colonies, while in New 
York they made the majority of all the white settlers, even up to the 
Revolution. In New Jersey and Delaware there were many repre- 
sentatives of various European nations ; while in Pennsylvania the 
German farmers and the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians outnumbered 
the Englishmen. The influence of these nationalities was for the 
most part good, and the English settlers were much aided in all 
their struggles for liberty by their neighbors and fellow-colonists. 



THE SETTLERS. 



95 



166. Character of the Settlements. — The three divisions of the col- 
onies were very unlike in the character of the settlements. In New 
England the farms were small, and the constant dread of the Indians 
caused the people to come together in villages. In many cases 
whole towns were formed at once, and sometimes nearly the whole 
population of one of these towns moved from one place to another. 
In the South there were very few towns or villages. Each planter 
would have access to 'a river, and thus obtain an easy method of 
travel, while often separated from his nearest neighbor by miles of 




A New England Colonial House. 



dense woods. The Middle colonies occupied a halfway ground, hav- 
ing more villages than the colonies to the south, and also larger farms 
than their eastern neighbors. Jamestown and Williamsburg, the 
capitals of Virginia, were but small villages; St. Mary's and Anna- 
polis hardly larger; while Charleston, the capital of South Carolina, 
was the only important town in the South. New York, Philadel" 
phia, and Albany were the leading towns of the Middle colonies, 
while other towns were not more than villages. The towns were 



96 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



the leading feature of New England civilization, many of them 
being of considerable historical interest. Salem, Portsmouth, and 
New Haven were important commercial ports. Providence and 
Newport controlled Rhode Island ; while Philadelphia and Boston 
were not only the largest towns among the colonies, but were 
also by far the most influential. 

167. Classes. — All the colonists had come from countries where 
there were various classes of society, and all brought with them a 

belief in rank and aris- 
tocracy, modified by the 
conditions of each col- 
ony. The Southern col- 
onists were very like their 
English cousins, and the 
gentry consisted of the 
great planters who owned 
large tracts of land and 
lived at leisure, consider- 
ing it a disgrace to labor. 
In New York were the 
Dutch land-owners, who 
lived well upon their in- 
come, possessing vast es- 
tates, which they rented 
to tenant farmers. In 
the other Middle colo- 
nies a similar distinction 
was granted to the owners 
of great farms, but the 
class was not so import- 
ant. In New England 
there was a careful recognition of the different classes, though all 
the people found it necessary to work. The members of the 
learned professions were the upper class among the Puritans, and 
they held their position simply by reason of public opinion. The 
mass of New England's population was of the English middle 
class, and formed the strength of these colonies in all times of 
danger. In the Southern colonies the middle class was composed 




An old Dutch House, Albany, N. Y. 



THE SETTLERS. 



97 



of rough and illiterate men, who, because of close contact with 
slavery, considered it beneath them to work. In South Carolina 
there was no middle class, the lines being sharply drawn between 
planters and servants. 

168. Servants. — The highest class of servants in the colonies was 
the tenants, who paid rent to the land-owner, and also owed him 
certain obedience and service. Lower than the tenants were the 
bond-servants, who were to be found in great numbers in Virginia 
and Pennsylvania. Some of these were boys and girls who were 
•' bound out" until of age ; while many others were men and women 
who bound themselves out for a term of years to pay their passage 
across the water. These could be bought and sold, and were, 
during their "time," little better than slaves. Many persons con- 
victed of crime were sold in the colonies for a term of years, to be 
*' convict-servants." Most of the servants through all the colonies 
were negro slaves. The first to be brought to this country came in 
1619, and in 1775 there were nearly half a million negroes. In 
the Northern colonies, where the climate was colder, the white 
population were willing to work, and negroes were not in so great 
demand. They were used in New England chiefly as house- 
servants, while in the Middle colonies they were employed some- 
what among the wheat-fields. The heat of the Southern summer 
was too severe for the white settlers, and negroes were demanded 
in large numbers to work the great plantations of tobacco, rice, 
and indigo. Thus the number of slaves south of Pennsylvania 
was many times that of those in the North. The influence of 
slavery has always proved harmful, creating a prejudice against 
labor, and finally the Southern colonies found it almost impossible 
to free themselves from its chains. 







/-v..-^^^ 



Old Hc>.t« »f T),, rfi.ld. 



98 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



CHAPTER XXIV, 



RESOURCES. 



169. Plantations. — The first settlers of Virginia came for the pur- 
pose of finding gold, or the Northwest Passage, or to trade with the 
Indians. Little was thought of agriculture until after the " starving 
time," and even then, for a time, there was but little real farming, 
as the immigrants were for the most part unused to that form of 

labor. In time 
the poorer land- 

\ r/'^lf ^.HKi^^1i ^-'^'^^^^P^^^'^^^y^'^"^' ' owners were com- 

VSl^^W^fe^^^-li:- "^ ■'■'>"' ' pelled to sell to the 

more wealthy, and 
soon a large por- 
tion of the South- 
ern Colonic*' was 
owned bycoiVipar- 
atively few men. 
These planters 
patterned closely 
after the English 
country gentle- 
men of theii day. On the plantations would 
be found the great house, the negro quarters, 
the bains and stables, and the shops, in which 
were rudely manufactured many of the articles 
needed on the place. In fact, each plantation became a com- 
munity by itself. Throughout all the Southern colonies tobacco 
was the principal crop, but in the Carolinas rice and indigo came to 
be staple articles. Lumber was shipped from the Carolinas, and 
cattle were raised to a considerable extent. Other farm produce, 
as a rule, was grown on each plantation, but only as much as was 
necessary for the support of the community. 

170. Small Farms. — Proceeding northward, one would find the 




A Southern Mansion 



plantations growing smaller and more numerous. 



The great wheat 



w >• 



RESOURCES. 99 

region was in the Middle colonies, and many of the farms here were 
large and prosperous. There was a greater variety of farm produce 
than south of the Potomac, and many cattle were raised in New 
Jersey. In New England an entire change of things was to be found. 
Here there were no large farms, no tenants; each farm was managed 
by its owner. The soil was not rich ; rocks and stones abounded ; it 
was impossible to raise large crops of any staple. Each farm raised 
enough of various crops to feed the family; and all necessities, for 
the most part, were made on the place. The larger portion of the 
population of New England lived in towns and villages, and these 
clusters of houses were separated by long distances. In no respect 
was the difference between the Eastern and Southern colonies more 
pronounced than in the communities, — the towns, in which almost 
every house was owned by the occupant himself, and the planta- 
tions, where all was the property of the great planter. 

171. Commerce. — The scattered condition of the colonies along 
the coast built up a large coasting trade. Their dependency upon 
the mother country was productive of much commerce. Vessels 
were built in all the colonies, though shipbuilding was confined prin- 
cipally to New England, — Maine furnishing the most timber for this 
purpose. The great fisheries off the New England coast developed 
a race of hardy sailors, and these did most of the carrying trade. 
Tobacco, rice, indigo, beef, cotton, tar, and turpentine were exported 
from the Southern colonies, while all kinds of manufactures were 
brought back from England. The exports of grain and flour from 
the port of New York did not equal the imports into the Middle 
colonies. New England raised little that could be used in foreign 
trade, but rather sought to build and man the vessels which should 
engage in commerce. Lumber and furs formed a considerable part 
of the exports from all the colonies, and sugar and molasses of the 
imports. Pirates did much injury to the commerce of the colonies, 
and for a long time were able to ward off all efforts to drive them 
from American waters. 

172. Navigation Acts. — A great blow was dealt to colonial com- 
merce by the Navigation Acts (IF 202), the first of which was passed in 
1-65 I by Cromwell and his Parliament. This provided that England's 
products. must be carried to the colonies in English or colonial vessels. 
This act was passed for the purpose simply of aiding English com- 
merce and as a direct blow to the Dutch carrying trade. In 1663 

L.tfC. 



lOO 



ESTABLISPIMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



Other laws were passed by the Parliament of Charles II., orderiiig 
that all goods imported into any colony must come from some 
English port This bore heavily on the colonists, especially on the 
commerce-loving New Englanders, and later acts proved even more 
burdensome. As the colonists considered these laws unjust, it was 
not strange that many of the merchants attempted to evade them, 
and smuggling grew to be common in various New England ports. 
The laws were poorly enforced, as the revenue officers often either 
took bribes to overlook the illicit trade, or sometimes even engaged 
in it themselves. A more rigid enforcement proved, in later years, 
one of the most important causes that brought about the Revolution. 
173. Manufactures. — In a new country, farming, shipping, and 
hunting are usually the first occupations. It has always proved 

true that manufactures only 
become of importance as the 
settlements grow older. Thus 
the people of the colonies 
devoted but little time to 
developing those industries 
which, since the Revolution, 
have made the United States 
the great manufacturing na- 



tion of the world. In the 
South there were no manu- 
factures whatever, everything 
that was needed being im- 
ported from England. In the 
Middle colonies there were 
small manufactures, as paper 
and glass, and in 1720 an 
iron furnace was started in Pennsylvania. New England imported 
fewer manufactured goods than the other colonies, needing only 
the most important ones. " There being abundant water-power, 
small saw and grist mills were numerous ; there were many tanneries 
and distilleries; the Scotch-Irish made linens and coarse woollens." 
Homespun goods were made in every farmhouse, the spinning- 
wheels being run by every maiden and housewife. The large manu- 
factories of the New England of to-day sprang naturally from the 
smaller industries of colonial times. 




A Flax-Wheel. 



EDUCATION. lOI 

CHAPTER XXV. 

EDUCATION. 

174. Schools. — One of the most important characteristics of the 
Puritans of New England was their belief in the necessity of educa- 
tion. Hardly had they founded their churches and built their 
houses before they established a school. In 1647 the General 
Court of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay passed an act requiring 
every town to establish a free school, and, if there were one hundred 
families in the town, a grammar school. Common schools were to 
be found throughout all the New England colonies at an early date, 
and in every colony but Rhode Island there was an attempt at 
requiring all the children to attend school. The Dutch in New 
Netherland rivalled the Puritans in their establishment of free 
schools, but these schools began to decay when the colony became 
English. Throughout the Middle colonies there were many suc- 
cessful private schools, though but little public money was used in 
educating the people. In the South, opportunities for obtaining an 
education were very few. There were no free schools, and but very 
few schools of any kind. The planters either placed their children 
under tutors at home, or sent them to England to be educated. 

175. Colleges. — The elementary schools taught the boys to " read, 
write, and cipher ; " the girls received even less education. The 
grammar schools were not like those of to-day ; the word " gram- 
mar " meant Latin grammar, and these schools were academies, fit- 
ting boys only for college. The first college was founded in 1636, 
the General Court of Massachusetts appropriating ^400 for the pur- 
pose. In 1638 the college received the name of Harvard College, 
in honor of John Harvard, who gave to it his library and half his 
estate. In 1693 a charter was obtained from the king and queen, 
which established William and Mary College in Virginia, the second 
in the colonies. Yale College was founded at Saybrook, Connecti- 
cut, in 1700, and before the French and Indian War three others 
were started which have since become Columbia, Princeton, and 
the University of Pennsylvania. 



I02 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



176. Printing. — Daily newspapers and free public libraries were 
unknown in the colonies. The first printing-press was set up at 
Cambridge, in connection with Harvard College, in 1639, and 
from this time aided the college in moulding New England. The 
first newspaper was the Boston " News Letter," which was published 
in 1704. The title of this paper indicates its character, as its columns 
were filled, for the most part, with extracts from private letters 

received by the inhabitants 
of Boston. At the begin- 
ning of the Revolution there 
were thirty-seven news-' 
papers in all the colonies. 
Few persons were rich 
enough to afford a library, 
and the libraries that did 
exist would seem small to- 
day. The colonists had a 
hard struggle to support 
themselves, and were not 
able to devote much time 
to reading. The people of 
New England acquired their 
education fully as much from 
the sermons to which they 
listened every Sunday, and 
from the town meetings, as 
from schools or books. 

177. Professions. — In some 
of the Southern colonies it 
might be said that there 
were no professions. In 
none of them were there many lawyers or skilled physicians, while 
the ministers were for the most part of but moderate ability. In 
the Middle colonies the same condition of things existed as to the 
practice of medicine. The judges and lawyers were usually of high 
standing, while the clergy were earnest, able men. Much of New 
England's leadership among the colonies was due to the eminent 
ministers who were popular leaders and men of rare ability. The 




The Old South Church Boston, Mass. 



RELIGION. 



103 



lawyers and statesmen were of less importance, though as time 
went on they came more and more into prominence. The doc- 
tors were much esteemed by the people, though many of them were 
not of very high ability. Literature, fine arts, and the sciences 
were unable to make much headway, and until the middle of 
the eighteenth century there were almost no authors, painters, or 
scientists. 

178. Town Meetings. — The most peculiar feature of the New Eng- 
land colonies, making them unlike any of the others, was their town 
government, with its town meeting. The people of a New England 
town governed themselves, making their own laws. They met 
in town meeting at least once a year, and all the men of the town 
might be present, vote, and take part in the discussions. In 
fact, there was, at one time, a fine if any citizen was not present. 
These meetings were often held in the churches, as few halls and 
no theatres then existed. In several towns the meetings were very 
large, and in Boston they were usually held in Faneuil Hall or the 
Old South Church. All matters relating to the town were dis- 
cussed, appropriations of money were made, and the officers were 
elected. Here was a pure, democracy, all men's votes being of 
equal importance, and each being privileged to speak his mind 
on any subject. The town meeting was a great educator of 
the people, and its influence has been felt even to the present 
day. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

RELIGION. 

179. Church of England. — The first settlers in Virginia brought 
with them the Church of England, or the Episcopal Church, as it 
is called in America to-day. The Royal Instructions given to the 
London Company made it the Established Church of the colony. 
Taxes were levied in most of the Southern colonies for the support 
of the church. Those colonists who had other forms of belief were 
persecuted, and, especially after the Restoration, harsh measures 



^04 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



prevailed. In the Carolinas less persecution took place, and in 
South Carolina the Dissenters were in the majority. The Church 
of England was established in New York and New Jersey, but in 
the latter there was no religious persecution. In these colonies 
there were many religious sects, the Dutch Reformed, the Dutch 
Lutheran, and the Presbyterian being the leading denominations. 

The Episcopal service 
was not permitted in 
New England until the 
time of Andros (H 190), 
and during the eigh- 
teenth century this 
church made few gains 
among the Puritans 
of Massachusetts and 
Connecticut. 

180. The Puritans. — 
The early settlers of 
New P^ngland fled 
from religious perse- 
cution in England 
to establish Puritan 
churches. At first, 
town and church in 
Massachusetts were 
identical, and for many 
years only members 
of Puritan churches 
were allowed to vote. 
It was natural that 
there should be a very 
matters should pre- 




Puritans going to Church 

marked reli":ious feelin 



and that religious 



dominate throughout the colony. The Puritans were very intoler- 
ant, not allowing any other form of worship, though this feeling 
grew weaker as time went on. They were especially opposed to 
tne introduction of the Episcopal ritual, as they feared that Eng- 
land might force that church service upon them. The Puritans, or 
Congregationalists, formed a large majority of the population of 



RELIGION. 



105 



New England, even up to the Revolution, though they were not 
numerous in the other colonies. At times they obtained some 
power in South Carolina and Maryland, and were quite promi- 
nent in New Jersey, but their stronghold was in the New England 
colonies. 

181. Roger Williams. — Endicott had scarcely become settled at 
Salem (1158) when he sent back to England two brothers by the 
name of Browne, because they objected to the omission of the 
Prayer-book from the service of the Salem church. Mrs. Anne 
Hutchinson was driven from Massachusetts Bay because the Puri- 
tans deemed the doctrines which she preached dangerous (1,6'/), 
The most noted example of the persecution of a single individual 
was that of Roger Williams {*^ 66). He went to Salem in 1631, 
and, after preaching a short time in the P'irst Church, was chosen 
pastor at Plymouth. Returning to Salem in 1634, he soon incurred 
the enmity of the leaders of the colony on account of the radical 
views which he preached from the Salem pulpit. He believed in 
separating church and state and in allowing perfect religious 
liberty. He denied the right of the colonists to the land, since they 
had not purchased it from the Indians. Through his influence 
Endicott cut the cross from the royal ensign, thinking it a symbol 
of Roman Catholicism. He became feared both for religious and 
political reasons, and in January, 1636, orders were issued that he 
be carried back to England. Fleeing into the wilderness, he spent 
many weeks among the Indians before he landed at Providence and 
founded the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. 

182. The Quakers. — The peculiar views of the Friends, popularly 
called Quakers, were sufficient to set the Puritans against them. 
But there were a few who called themselves Friends who went to 
such extremes that they brought against the whole denomination a 
prejudice which the mass of the Quakers did not deserve. Massa- 
chusetts took the lead in persecuting these people, and their cruel 
treatment has always been a blot upon her fair fame. The first to 
arrive were two women from Barbadoes who were put In prison, and 
their books publicly burned. They were sent back, but immediately 
eight more arrived from England. The four colonies belonging to 
the New England Union (IT 189) passed laws banishing all Quakers 
and threatening severe punishment if any should return. The poor 



I06 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 

Quakers, earnest in their faith, persisted in returning, and were 
flogged, imprisoned, had their ears cut off, and their tongues burned 
with a hot iron. At last Massachusetts passed a law that returning 
Quakers should be put to death, and three persons were hanged on 
Boston Common. In 1660 the death penalty was repealed, and 
persecution grew less and less. Times had changed when in 1789 
a Quaker, chairman of the board of selectmen, welcomed President 
Washington to Salem. 

183. Religious Freedom. — While there was a great difference 
among the colonies in regard to religious persecution, in but 
three could it be said that religious toleration existed. Roger 
Williams fled from the persecution of the Puritans to found a 
colony wherein every person was allowed perfect religious freedom. 
The Baptists became the most numerous sect in Rhode Island, 
but they had no special political power. In Penn's Frame of 
Government, it was enacted that there should be religious liberty 
in Pennsylvania, and this colony, as well as Rhode Island, came to 
be an asylum for those persecuted for religion's sake. The only 
Roman Catholic colony was Maryland, and here there was no per- 
secution as long as the Catholics were in power. When William 
and Mary came to the throne in 1688, the Church of England was 
established, and religious freedom in Maryland came to an end. 

184. Superstition. — Throughout all ages and in all countries 
belief in some form of evil spirits has accompanied belief in God. 
An almost universal fear of witches and witchcraft was associated 
even with the Christian faith. Throughout all European nations, 
so-called witches were executed ; and in England in one year one 
hundred and twenty were put to death on charges of witchcraft. 
Among the colonies, here and there, persons were accused of being 
in league with the Devil, and punishment was inflicted upon a few. 
In 1692 an "epidemic of superstitious fear" occurred in Massachu- 
setts, beginning in Salem Village, or what is now called Danvers. 
Children witnessed against many persons throughout the county, 
and before the craze was over twenty persons unjustly lost their 
lives. The next year, the people began to recover their senses, 
and in May, 1693, the jail doors were opened and all the prisoners 
accused of witchcraft were set free. This jail delivery marked the 
beginning of a better day. 



1763. 




ENGLISH COLONIES, 

1763. 



\St.Aug2tktine 



Beaufort, 




New York after 1664. 






Net!) Jersey after 1689. 






Pennm/lvania «/fer 1681. 

{North half embraced in the Connecticut Charter.) 
Massachusetts after 1691. 
New Bampshire after 1691. 
Connecticut, I60i~mi, {Charter embraces TU/rO' half 

Penn's Charter.) 
Rhode Island, 1664. 






Carolina, 1665. 






Georgia, 1733. 






S. Carolina,mO. 



Copyright.^ 1892, in MacCouri' s Historical Geography of the United States. 



GOVERNMENT. I07 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

GOVERNMENT. 

185. Charter Colonies. — There were three forms of governinent 
among the colonies, — charter, proprietary, and royal. The three 
charter colonies were Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 
Charles I. in 1629 granted a charter to the Massachusetts Bay 
Company which they brought over with them the next year. In 
1644 the same king gave a charter to the colony of Rhode Island 
and Providence Plantations, and in 1665 New Haven and Connecti- 
cut were united by a charter granted to the colony of Connecticut. 
In these three colonies the people were allowed to govern them- 
selves, provided merely that they made no laws contrary to those 
of England. They chose the members of both branches of the 
legislature and the governor as well. Massachusetts lost its first 
charter in 1684, and the second, granted in 1691, directed that the 
governor should be appointed by the king. Rhode Island and 
Connecticut retained their charters and lived under them until long 
after the Revolution, Connecticut adopting a State constitution in 
1818, and Rhode Island in 1842 (I 486). 

186. Proprietary and Royal Colonies. — Each of the other ten 
colonies was originally given to some company or proprietor, 
though at the beginning of the Revolution but three were proprie- 
tary. Maryland was granted to Lord Baltimore in 1632; and Penn- 
sylvania and Delaware came into the hands of William Penn in 
168 r and 1682. In these colonies the proprietors appointed the 
governors and furnished charters to the people in accordance with 
which they were allowed to elect one branch of the legislature. 
The other colonies, though originally proprietary, became royal, 
one at a time, when the proprietors surrendered their rights to the 
king; in one o( these the proprietor, the Duke of York, became 
King James 11. In these colonies there were no charters, and the 
governors were appointed by the king. As he paid little attention 
to them, the people gradually began fo elect the members of the 
legislature, as in the other colonies. 



roS ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 

187. Colonial Govemment. — The colonies patterned after England 
in their form of government; the governor corresponded to the 
king; the two branches of the legislature to the House of Lords and 
the House of Commons. In Pennsylvania there was but one house, 
and in some of the colonies the Governor's Council formed the 
higher branch. The governor was the executive officer, — that is, 
had the duty of enforcing the laws, — while the legislature made the 
statutes necessary for the government of the colony. The legisla- 
tures of the different colonies went by different names, as the 
General Court of Massachusetts and the General Assembly of 
Rhode Island ; the lower house was sometimes the House of 
Burgesses, as in Virginia, the Assembly, as in New York, or more 
commonly the House of Representatives : by whatever name they 
were called, they had much the same power, and in every colony 
they did much to encourage home government and to instil a 
love of liberty and independence. 

188. Laws. — Some of the laws passed in the colonies were severe, 
though no worse than in other countries at that time. Many crimes 
were punishable by death; severe penalties were inflicted for 13'ing 
and swearing; in New England laws were enacted for the rigid 
keeping of the Sabbath day. For smaller offences, as slander, scold- 
ing, etc., the ducking-stool, the pillory, and the stocks were in com- 
mon use. The private lives of the people were carefully ordered, 
and liberty of conscience was often violated. 

189. The New England Union. — Prior to the French and Indian 
War only one attempt was made to unite any of the colonies. 
In 1643 the four colonies of Massachusetts Bay» Plymouth, Con- 
necticut, and New Haven, sent representatives to Boston, who 
formed '* The United Colonies of New England." The purpose 
of this Union can be best shown in the words of its constitution. It 
was to be " a firm and perpetual league of friendship and amity for 
offence and defence, mutual advice and succor upon all just occa- 
sions, both for preserving and propagating the truth and liberties of 
the gospel, and for their own mutual safety and welfare." The 
Union was formed soon after the Pequot War (IF 112), when the 
people were much afraid of the Indians, and at a time when 
the Dutch were troublesome in Connecticut, and the king and the 
Puritans were at war in England. Rhode Island was not admitted 



GOVERNMENT. lOQ 

because Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Connecticut each claimed 
a portion of her territory, while the remote position of New Hamp- 
shire left her out also. The only government of the Union con- 
sisted in a board of commissioners, two from each colony, whose 
duty it was to be a committee of public safety, and to merely recom- 
mend measures to the colonies. After the Restoration in 1660 the 
Union began to grow weaker, and, though meetings were held by 
the commissioners until 1684, had little importance except during 
King Philip's War (H 115). 

190. Andros. — Charles II., after the Restoration, was more than 
willing to punish the Puritans, who had beheaded his father and 
wrested the throne from himself He was a firm believer in the 
*' divine right of kings," and was opposed to the rule of the people, 
and especially the democratic government of the charter colonies. 
In 1684, after a long struggle with Massachusetts Bay, he declared 
the charter to be " null and 

void," and the colony to be a 
royal possession. James II. suc- 
ceeded his brother in 1685, and 
sent over Sir Edmund Andros 
the next year, to be governor of 
Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, 
New Hampshire, and Maine. 
He was granted almost royal 
authority, and soon after the 
rest of New England was put un- 
der his government. Althousrh 

^^ The " Charter Oak," Hartford, Conn. 

this was contrary to the charters 

of Connecticut and Rhode Island, it did not deter the king. In 
1688 Andros was made governor of New York and New Jersey, 
thus ruling from Acadia to Delaware. 

191. The Charters. — The power granted to Andros was very great, 
and his method of government was despotic. Rhode Island was com- 
pelled to give up her charter, and Andros went to Hartford to obtain 
the charter of Connecticut. The story runs that while the magis- 
trates were discussing the matter with the governor, the lights were 
put out ; and when they were relighted, the charter could not be 
found. It had been taken from the table and hidden in an oak- 




no 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



tree, which has received the title of the ** Charter Oako" Andros* 
rule was short, for, in the spring of 1689, news reached Boston of 
the landing of the Prince of Orange, and the flight of King James. 
The governor was seized by the people of Boston and sent back to 
England. In 1691 a new charter was granted to Massachusetts, 
annexing Plymouth and Maine, and forever separating New Hamp- 
shire, making it a royal colony. The charters of Connecticut and 
Rhode Island were returned, and matters went on as before. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 



LIFE 



192. Dress. — The people of the colonies, for the most part, were 
simple in habits and plain in dress. On ordinary occasions they 




Puritan Youth and Maiden. 



wore sober-colored gAiMients, only decking themselves in finery on 
the Sabbath or on hjlidays. The men wore knee-breeches, long 
stockings, buckled shoes, short cloaks, and " steeple-crowned " hats. 



LIFE. I I I 

The working classes had clothes made of leather, deer-skin, or coarse 
canvas only, while the better clothing was homespun, except the 
small amount of imported cloth which the wealthy could afford. 
The younger men delighted in gaudy belts, with buckles and but- 
tons of silver or polished brass. Often they used much lace and 
long ruffs upon their sleeves. The hair was worn long, powdered, 
and done up in a queue. 

The women ordinarily dressed in plain homespun goods, and 
only on special occasions did they appear in silks and laces. The 
Dutch matrons were more gayly dressed than the New England 
women, with short bright dresses, many-colored stockings of their 
own knitting, and high-heeled shoes. The fashions of the seven- 
teenth century differed greatly from those of the nineteenth, but as 
far as they could our ancestors kept up to the styles of the day. 

193. Houses. — The first dwellings of the colonists, both north 
and south, were much alike. They were usually made of logs, 
though in a few cases the people lived in holes or caves. At first 
round logs were used, then they were squared or hewed, and finally 
cut into beams. One-story houses with steep roofs, covered with 
thatch, was the rule. As the people grew more prosperous, better 
houses were built. 

The Southern planters had large mansions, " baronial halls," 
built of imported brick, with mahogany staircases and mantels. In 
Philadelphia and New York, the better residences were of brick or 
stone. The Dutch houses had gable-ends facing the street, and 
many doors and windows. The wood and brass work was always 
kept highly polished. In New England the houses were of wood 
or home-made brick, often two stories high in front and one in the 
rear. They usually faced the south, so that the time of day could 
readily be told from the sun. Instead of glass, oiled paper was 
at first used to admit the light. In all the houses were open fire- 
places, large enough for four-foot logs, and often containing long 
settles on which the members of the family could sit. Friction 
matches were unknown, and fire was kept through the night with 
jealous care, the coals covered over thick with ashes. Wood was 
very plentiful, and was burned without stint, 

194. Furniture. — The plain and simple houses of the colonists 
contained plain and simple furniture. Tables and benches were 



I 12 



p:stablishment of the colonies. 



roughly made, and stools were used in place of chairs. The beds 
were filled with mistletoe or with the feathers of wild birds. The 
dishes were for the most part of wood, and none of the people had 
forks. The dresser had its long rows of pewter, or, in the wealthy 
families, of silver and china. Only the rich planters and the Dutch 
"patroons" could afford gold and silver plate. These had also 
imported furniture, mahogany bedsteads, and tables with claw- 
footed legs. There were no carpets ; but most of the floors were 

covered with sand. There were no stoves; 
heat was furnished by wood fires, over 
which most of the cooking was done. 

195. Food. — Meat was roasted by being 
placed over the fire upon a spit or long 
iron rod, which was frequently turned; 
fish were cooked directly upon the coals. 
Meat and vegetables were boiled in pots 
or kettles hung in the flames on a crane, 
or in skillets placed in front of the fire, 
under which live coals were put. Some- 
times food was cooked by being placed 
in water in wooden vessels, into which hot 
stones had been laid. In later times large 
brick ovens were built; in these hot coals 
were put, and bread was baked after the 
ashes had been swept out. 

The food, among the middle classes, 
was plain and spare. Very little fresh 
meat was to be had, except that obtained 
by hunters and anglers. The fare was 
mainly of vegetables with a little salt pork, 
corn meal and milk, and rye or Indian 
bread. Seldom did the common people have more than meal or 
porridge for breakfast, and mush for supper. Tea and coffee were 
little used, home-made cider and beer taking their place. More 
spirits were used than at the present day, and by all the people. 
Though wine, rum, and hard cider were common beverages, being 
largely of home manufacture, the evils resulting from their use were 
much less then than now. 




Franklin's Clock. 

(Now in Philadelphia Library.) 



LIFE. 



113 




196. Implements. — The tools of the colonists were as rude as 
their furniture. Iron was an expensive luxury, and but little of it 
could be used. Many of the farming implements were of home 
manufacture, and even the smiths were poor workmen. Hoes, 

shovels, and rakes were rough and bulky, and the ploughs 
were frequently made of wood, covered with plates of 
iron. Horse-rakes, mowing-machines, and 
automatic reapers had not been invented. 

In warfare the imple- 
ments were rude and in- 
convenient. At first iron 
helmets and breastplates 
were worn, and later the 
"^ colonists lined their coats 

with cotton-wool as a pro- 

A Colonial Plough. . , *■ 

tection agamst the arrows 
of the Indians. The first guns were match-locks, so called because 
a long slow-match was carried with which to light the powder. 
These guns were so heavy that it was necessary to carry forked 
sticks, on which they could be rested, in order to be fired. These 
nearly useless guns were succeeded by the flint-locks, in which the 
spark was made by flint striking steel. 

197. Amusements. — Though the colonists were sober, hard- 
working people, they were also fond of certain amusements. In 
New England, holidays, such as Thanksgiving, election, and training 
days, were long anticipated and thoroughly enjoyed. Quilting and 
spinning bees, corn-huskings,and house-raisings were times of merri- 
ment as well as of labor. Weddings, and even funerals, were made 
times of feasting, which often continued for many days. Wrestling 
and shooting matches were common at holidays, and blind-man's- 
buff at parties. In the Middle and Southern colonies ruder sports 
were indulged in, as horse-racing, bull-baiting, and cock-fighting. 
Hunting and fishing were common in all the colonies, while the 
Dutch introduced the customs of coasting, skating, and sleighing. 

198. The New England Sunday. — Religious matters occupied a 
large part of the thought of the Puritans of New England, and 
their Sunday very noticeably influenced their character. The day 
began with them at sunset on Saturday, and work was then laid 

8 



II4 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COLONIES. 

aside. No cooking was allowed on the Sabbath; all amusements 
and regular occupations were forbidden ; and all was quiet and sober 
on that day. No travelling was permitted, except to and from the 
nearest church. They were called to service by a drum or bell, 
and for many years it was necessary for them to go armed. 

The churches were not heated, and the women often carried foot- 
stoves. The men and women, young and old, had their separate 
places in the church, and constables took care of the boys. The 
sermons were long, and the sexton would often turn the hour-glass 
upon the desk twice during their delivery. Laws required the 
attendance of all the people, and tithing-men were appointed to 
investigate each case of absence. Long and tiresome as the day 
was, it was simply an expression of their understanding of the Bible 
doctrines. 

199. Travel. — As in all new countries, the first travel was by 
water. Canoes were hollowed out of the trees, usually capable of 
carrying six persons. Small sailing-vessels, or shallops, were used 
in travelling along the coast. Later, packets ran between the larger 
towns, as, from New Haven and Albany to New York. Indian trails 
and bridle-paths were the first roads across the country, and people 
went on foot or horseback, the goods being carried on pack-horses. 
Few wheeled wagons were seen outside of the towns, and horseback 
was at all times the best mode of travelling. The roads were poor, 
especially outside of New England, and few streams were bridged 
except the smallest, and those only on the main roads. The jour- 
ney from Boston to New York by stage required six days, and three 
more to Philadelphia. Taverns were found in nearly every town, 
and travellers were compelled to endure poor quarters and worse 
cooking. 



CHRONOLOGY. 

1606. Charter granted to London and Plymouth Companies, April lo. 
1609. Virginia — Second charter to the London Company. 
1612. Virginia — Third charter to the London Company. 

1619. Virginia — First Legislative Assembly, July 30. 
Virginia — First importation of negro slaves. 

1620. New England — Charter granted to Council of Plymouth. 



CHRONOLOGY. I 1 

1624. Virginia — Charter annulled. 

1629. Massachusetts Bay — Charter granted, March 4. 

1632. Maryland — Charter granted. 

1635. New England — Council of Plymouth resigns its charter. 

1636. Massachusetts — Harvard University founded. 
Massachusetts — Roger Williams banished 

1638. Massachusetts — Mrs. Hutchinson banished. 

1639. Connecticut — Constitution adopted, January 14. 
1641. New Hampshire — Joined to Massachusetts. 
1643. New England Confederation formed, May. 
1647. Massachusetts — Free School Act passed. 
1649. England — Charles I. beheaded, January 30. 
1651. England — First Navigation Act passed. 

1656. Massachusetts — Arrival of the tirst Quakers. 

1659. Massachusetts — Hanging of two Quakers. 

1660. England — The Restoration. 

1662. Connecticut — Charter granted, April 20. 

1663. Rhode Island — Charter granted, July 8. 
First Bible printed in the colonies. 
Carolina— Granted by Charles II., March 24. 

1664. New York — Granted to the Duke of York. 

1665. New Jersey — Granted to Berkeley and Carteret. 
Connecticut and New Haven united. 

1674. New Jersey — Divided into East and West Jersev 

1679. New Hampshire — Made royal province. 

1681. Pennsylvania — Granted to William Penn, March 4. 

1682. Delaware — Sold to William Penn. 

1684. Massachusetts — Charter annulled, June 18. 

1686. New England — Arrival of Andros, December 20. 

1687. Connecticut — Andros demands the charter, October 31. 

1688. England — Landing of the Prince of Orange, November 5,. 

1689. Massachusetts — Andros deposed, April 18. 

1691. Massachusetts — Second charter granted. 
Plymouth — United to Massachusetts. 
New Hampshire — Made a royal province. 

1692. Massachusetts — Witchcraft delusion. 

1693. Virginia — William and Mary College chartered. 

1701. Connecticut — Yale College chartered. 

1702. New Jersey — Becomes a royal colony. 

1703. Delaware — Becomes a separate colony. 

1704. Massachusetts — " Boston News Letter " published. 
1729. Carolinas — Become royal provinces, September. 
1732. Georgia — Granted to Oglethorpe. 

1752. Georgia — Charter surrendered to the king. 



TBlacfiboam anal^isiiS* 



CAUSES OP THE 
KEVOLUTiON 



Navigation Laws. 

Taxation. 

Stamp Act. 

Quartering of Troops. 
' Provocations . -| Tax on Tea. 

Boston Port Bill. 

Massachusetts Bill. 

Transportation Bill. 
1 Quebec Act. 



. Resistance . 



Smuggling. 
Stamp Act Congress, 
Boston Massacre. 
The Gaspee. 
Boston Tea Party. 




The Bnt.jK Un.on.JicK. 



lart II. 

FORMATION OF THE NATION 
1763-1789. 



SECTION V. 

CONTROVERSY WITH ENGLAND. 1763-1775. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 



COMMERCE OF THE COLONIES. 



200. Population. — The colonies were now about to enter upon a 
course which would lead them to resistance against the mother 
country, and finally to independence. There were four New Eng- 
land, four Middle, and five Southern colonies, with an entire popu- 
lation of not more than two millions. The various industries at 
the North and at the South were rapidly yielding an abundance of 
products, especially agricultural. The excess beyond the demand 
for home consumption was more and more seeking foreign markets. 

201. Exports and Imports.— In 1763 the value of the colonial ex- 
ports exceeded five million dollars, and the imports amounted to 
fully eight millions. Both exports and imports were rapidly increas- 
ing, notwithstanding the ''Non-Importation Agreements" (I215). 
The significance of this will be best appreciated by bearing in mind 
that the studied policy of the mother country was designed to keep 



ii8 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1764 



the colonies dependent upon her, especially for manufactures and 
trade. Manufactures in America were prohibited. Iron works were 
denounced as " common nuisances." It was insisted that America 
must not make even a nail for a horseshoe unless Parliament gave its 
permission. In the Carolinas the making of turpentine and tar was 
prohibited. The manufacture of hats in one colony, to be sold in 
another, was not allowed. Printing was discouraged to such an 
extent that to print an English Bible would have been an act of 
piracy. 

202. Navigation Laws. — Great Britain passed, in 1764, what were 
termed '' Navigation Laws." These laws extended the former Navi- 
gation Acts (IF 172), making England a storehouse of Asiatic as 

well as of European supplies ; dimin- 
ished the drawbacks on foreign articles 
exported to America; placed imposts, 
especially on wines ; established a rev- 
enue duty on foreign molasses, and 
increased the duty on sugar; made 
various regulations to sustain English 
manufactures, as well as to enforce 
more diligently the acts of trade ; and 
absolutely prohibited all trade be- 
tween the British provinces and St. 
Pierre and Miquelon. Of this act Ban- 
croft says, it *' had for the first time 
the title of * granting duties in the 
colonies and plantations of America; ' 
for the first time it was asserted in the 
preamble that it was 'just and neces- 
sary that a revenue should be raised 
there.'" 

203. England's Repressive Policy. — These acts to restrain the colo 
nial trade were now put in operation. Numerous customs-officers 
were appointed, who received orders to proceed rigorously. Naval 
officers were encouraged to prey upon American commerce with 
the West Indies and other parts ; vessels were constantly searched ; 
confiscation usually followed, and an appeal cost more than the 
value of the goods. 



Christopher Sower (or, as it was 
then spelled, Saur), a German, who 
was born in 1693 and emigrated to 
America in 1724, was a printer and 
publisher in Germantown, Pa. He 
began the publication of books in 1738, 
and continued it till his death, twenty 
years later. In 1743 he published a 
German Bible after Luther's transla- 
tion. This was the first Bible printed 
in America in a European language. 
The/irsi Bible printed in America was 
in the Indian language, and was pub- 
lished in 1663, at Boston. This was 
the famous Indian Bible translated by 
Rev. John Eliot, "the apostle to the 
Indians." Sower's German Bible con- 
tained 1284 pages, quarto, and was sold 
unbound for twelve shillings, and bound 
in full leather with clasps for eighteen 
shillings. The unbound copies were 
strongly sewed and fastened with a 
leather strap and buckle. Bancroft 
says that " No copy of the Bible in 
English was ever printed in these col- 
onies till the land had become free." 



1764] 



TAXATION. 



119 



204. The First Colonial Movement in Opposition.*— This state of 
things brought about the first movement in the struggle for union 
between the colonies. The Massachu- 
setts Assembly, led by James Otis, 
protested against any attempt to create 
a standing army in America, to ap- 
point officers who should not be re- 
sponsible to the colonial assemblies, 
or to raise a revenue without the con- 
sent of these assemblies. 

205, Increase of Colonial Commerce. — 
It surely is surprising that under all 
these adverse circum'^*:ances the foreign 
trade of the colonies should rapidly 
increase. On the New England coast, 
numerous shipyards produced vessels 
of various kinds and sizes, which were 
at once engaged in carrying on the 
commerce of the colonies, or were sold 
in foreign harbors. Large quantities 
of salt fish were carried to the various 
countries of Europe. Lumber, fish, and 
breadstuff's were sent to the West Indies 



James Otis was one of tlie foremost 
men in moulding the public sentiment 
of the colonies so as to bring about that 
condition of affairs which resulted in 
the Revolution and in independence. 
He was a man of great genius and ar- 
dent temper. He was impetuous and 
commanding as an orator, and as a law- 
yer stood at the head of his profession 
in Boston. He was born in 1725, and 
died in 1783. His public career began 
with his famous speech against the 
" Writs of Assistance," in 1761. From 
tjiat time he was the leader of the pop- 
ular party. He published "The Rights 
of the Colonies Vindicated," a master- 
piece of argument. He wrote many 
articles for the " Gazette," denouncing 
in severe terms the calumnies of some 
of the customs-officers. For this he 
was personally attacked in 1769, and 
received a deep cut on his head which 
has sometimes been assigned as the 
cause of his subsequent insanity. He 
was a representative to the General 
Court in 1771, but subsequently, his 
mind having become seriously im- 
paired, he took no active part in public 
affairs. 



to be exchanged for molasses, which, on its arrival, was often con- 



verted into New England rum. 



CHAPTER XXX. 



TAXATION. 



206. Taxation. — The causes of the American revolution all lead 
back to, and cluster around, the one word ** taxation." On this 
subject there was an English theory and an American theory. 
The imperial Parliament claimed the right to levy taxes not only 
in Great Britain, but in her colonies as well; the American theory 
denied its rigrht of taxation in the colonies. 



I20 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1765 



207. The American Theory. — The colonists professed loyalty to 
the king, but they did not acknowledge the authority of Parliament 
They claimed that their relations were only with the crown. If, 
therefore, the British government needed money from the Ameri- 
can colonies, it must be raised by the voluntary taxation of the 
colonies themselves, and not by a tax levied by Parliament. 

208. The English Theory. — The English theory, on the othei 
hand, was that the British Parliament had grown in its powers and 

claims into an " Imperial Parlia- 
ment" which was to give the law 
to the whole empire; hence Parlia- 
ment had passed the Navigation 
Laws. 

209. Writs of Assistance. — When 
smuggHng had become so com- 
mon that these acts were practi- 
cally dead-letters, English officers 
were granted writs of assistance. 
These writs authorized custom- 
house and naval officers to enter a 
man's store or even his dwelling- 
house whenever they pleased, to 
search for smuggled goods. The 
first use of these writs was espe- 
cially opposed by James Otis, who declared them to be contrary 
to the English constitution. The General Court of Massachusetts 
protested, and appointed a committee to secure union of action. 
This was the first 'general movement for union on the part of the 
colonies. " Here Independence was born." 

210. The Stamp Act. — In March, 1765, Parliament passed the 
famous Stamp Act, which made it obligatory upon the colonies to 
have all legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, etc., written or 
printed upon stamped paper, purchased of the British government. 
Dr. Franklin wrote to Mr. Charles Thompson, afterwards Secretary 
of Congress, "The sun of liberty is set; you must light up the 
candles of industry and economy." Mr. Thompson answered that 
he was apprehensive that other lights would be the consequence, 
and predicted the opposition that followed. 




Patrick Henry 

(From a painting- by T. Sully.) 



U65] 



TAXATION. 



121 



211. Effects upon the Colonies. — Great commotion followed the 
passage of this act throughout the colonies, llie houses of British 
officers were mobbed ; the agents for the sale of the stamps were 
seized ; and the people agreed to use only articles of home manufac- 
ture. Various branches of home industry vastly increased their 
product. At Harvard College in 1770, the graduating class took 
their diplomas in ** homespun" suits. Associations were formed, 
called the *' Sons of Liberty," with the express design of resisting 
the law. The act was to go into effect on the first of November. 
On that day business was very generally suspended, bells were 
tolled, flags were at half-mast, and the day was widely observed 
as a day of mourning. Such men as James Otis, Samuel Adams, 
John Adams, and Patrick Henry made stirring addresses to the 
people. 

212. Stamp Act Congress. — On the 7th of October. 1765, the first 
American Congress assembled in New York. This was the first 
union of the American people repre- 
sented by delegates elected by each 
separate colony, for the purpose of 
considering their rights and privileges, 
and of obtaining a redress for the vio- 
lation of them on the part of the mother 
country. In all its votes these repre- 
sentatives recognized each colony as 
equal to any other, " without the least 
claim for pre-eminence, one over the 
other." This was called the " Stamp 
Act Congress." 

213. Action of this Congress. — It pe- 
titioned the king, the House of Ccm- 
mons, and the House of Lords. It also 
put forth a declaration of colonial rights. 
Its action was o.ily declaratory; there was no attempt to legislate; 
and the importance of the meeting was simply that it demonstrated 
the possibility of union between the colonies. 



A Famous Speech. — It was at this 
time that Patrick Henry made his fa- 
mous speech before the House of Bur- 
gesses at WilHamsburg, Va. against 
parliamentary taxation. This address 
gave Mr. Henry a great reputation 
throughout the country. While des- 
canting on the tyranny of the obnox- 
ious act, he exclaimed, in a voice 
and with a gesture which stirred the 
house, "Cssarhadhis Brutus, Charles 
the First his Cromwell, and George the 
Third — " "Treason! " shouted the 
speaker. "Treason! treason! '* echoed 
from every part of the house. Without 
faltering for an instant, but rising to 
a loftier attitude, and fixing on the 
speaker an eye which seemed to flash 
fire, Mr. Henry added with the most 
thrilling emphasis, " may profit by their 
example! If this be treason, make the 
most of it." 



122 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



1.1770 



CHAPTER XXXI. 



THE BOSTON MASSACRE. 

214. Tax on Tea. — The Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, but 
Parliament still declared the right to tax the colonies, and the 
next year a new tax was imposed on tea, glass, paper, lead, and 
painters' colors. This act changed entirely the attitude of the 
colonists. The repeal of the Stamp Act had produced much better 
feeling, and the people had entertained the hope that Parliament 

would not again assert the right, 
which she claimed, of taxing them. 
Now, however, there was a grea'' 
revulsion of feeling. 

215. Its Effects. — The determi- 
nation not to submit to a tax was 
almost the universal sentiment. A 
board of trade was established at 
Boston to act independently of the 
colonial assemblies. The ** writs 
of assistance " were legalized, and 
the New York Assembly was sus- 
pended. The colonies ceased to 
import taxed articles, so that the 
amount of receipts from the law 
was insignificant. 

216. Troops in Boston. — The king's troops were now in Boston. 
Cannon were planted, sentries posted, and citizens challenged. 
Quarrels between the people and the soldiers were frequent. On 
the 5th of March, 1770, a crowd of men and boys, exasperated by 
the presence of the redcoats, insulted the city guard. 

217. Boston Mob. — In the evening several hundred persons with 
sticks or clubs gathered about King Street (now State Street), and 
threatened and provoked the soldiers with abusive language, daring 
them to fire. The officer ordered the soldiers into the barracks. 
By nine o'clock the mob gathered around the sentry, who was on 




Samuef Adams. 



1772] THE BOSTON MASSACRE. 1 23 

guard at the Custom-House, with cries, ** Kill him ! kill him ! 
Knock him down ! " Captain Preston, the officer of the day, sent 
a corporal and six men to protect the sentry. At length the 
assaulting party came to close quarters with the soldiers, still 
continuing their abuse and daring them to fire. The soldiers 
then fired upon the mob, and four persons were killed and five 
dangerously wounded, one of whom afterwards died. 

218. The Soldiers tried. — ■ A month later the soldiers were tried 
for murder, and were defended by John Adams and Josiah Ouincy. 
Although these lawyers were stanch patriots, they felt that the 
killing was justifiable, and were determined that the soldiers should 
have justice. It was a notable trial. Captain Preston and six 
soldiers were acquitted, and two were convicted of manslaughter. 
The sentence that they be burned in the hand was executed in 
open court. They were then discharged. The result of this trial 
was regarded as proving the integrity of Boston juries, and as clearly 
showing that they would give upright verdicts, even in defiance of 
popular opinions. 

219. The " Gaspee." — On the 9th of June, 1772, the British armed 
schooner *' Gaspee," commanded by Lieutenant Dudingston, ran 
aground upon a point in Narragansett Bay. That night eight boat- 
loads of respectable men from Providence boarded the schooner, 
captured her, and burned both the vessel and its stores. The 
officers and crew were put on shore, and the attacking party 
returned to Providence. A reward of ;^I00 from the governor, 
and an additional reward of ^^500 from the British government, 
for the discovery of any person engaged in the affair, as well 
as a reward of ^500 more for the capture of the captain of the 
enterprise, were all without effect. In the Boston Massacre the 
first blood was shed by the British soldiers, but the affair of 
the " Gaspee " may be regarded as the real beginning of the 
revolutionary struggle. 




124 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



r.1773 



CHAPTER XXXII. 



THE BOSTON TEA-PARTY. 



,,!C^A 



220. Opposition. — The colonies were rapidly learning that they 
could co-operate with each other in their controversies with the 
British government. The opposition to the Tea Tax was becoming 

general. Threats were 
^ ] made against the pilots 

of Boston, if they should 
bring any vessels laden 
with tea into the harbor. 
221. Boston at Fever 
Heat. — Public meetings 
were held, and resolu- 
tions were passed for- 
bidding any tea to be 
landed or received. The 
feeling was rapidly grow- 
ing that the quarrel be- 
tween Great Britain and 
the Massachusetts col- 
ony must come, and that 
it might as well take 
place now as at any 
time. On November 
rSth, 1773, a committee 
was appointed to wait 
upon the consignees and 
request that they should 
resign their appoint- 
ments. They refused to 
resign. On November 28th, Captain Hall, in the ship " Dart- 
mouth," came to anchor, having on board one hundred and fourteen 
chests of tea. 




Faneuil Hall, "the Cradle of Liberty. 



1773] 



THE BOSTON TEA-PARTY. 



^25 



222. Public Meeting. — The next day the good people of Boston 
found written notices posted in all parts of the town, inviting all 
friends of the country to meet at nine o'clock for concerted action 
to prevent the landing of the tea. The meeting adjourned until 
the next day, when it was determined that the tea should not 
be landed. Faneuil Hall being too small, the assembly adjourned 
to the Old South Meeting-House, where 
it was voted " that the tea shall not be 
landed, that no duty shall be paid, and 
that it shall be sent back in the same 
bottoms." 

223. Meeting in the Old South. — On 
December 14th, 1773, the people of 
Boston and the neighboring towns met 
at the Old South Meeting-House. and 
ordered the owner of th6 ship, Mr. 
Rotch, to apply immediately for clear- 
ance paper.s, and that the ship must 
sail away without landing any of its 
cargo. The clearance papers were re- 
fused by the collector. December 16th, 
1773, the public meeting of citizens was 
continued, and several thousand per- 
sons were present. Josiah Ouincy 
made a famous address, inquiring of 
the people if they would stand by their 
words with such decisive action as might 
be necessary. He advised them care- 
fully to consider the issue, and to look 
forward to the end before entering upon 
their course of action. In the after- 
noon the question, " Will you abide by 
your former resolutions with respect 
to not suffering the tea to be landed ? " was put. An affirmative 
answer was given unanimously. Mr. Rotch was ordered to pro- 
cure a pass for his vessel. About six o'clock he informed the 
body that he had applied to the governor for a pass, which had 
been refused. 



Faneuil Hall. — 'I'his famous build-_ 
ing, which is usually denominated " The 
Cradle of Liberty," was first built in 
1742 by Peter Faneuil, at his own ex- 
pense, and given to the town. The 
first story was intended for a market, 
and the second story was added for a 
town hall. The building was destroyed 
by fire in 1761. It was rebuilt by the 
town with the aid of a lottery established 
by the colony for that purpose. This 
new building was dedicated March 14, 
1763, when James Otis delivered the 
dedicatory address. It was enlarged in 
1806 to its present size, and a third story 
was added. " The first public oration 
in the hall was the funeral eulogy, de- 
livered in honor of its donor, Peter 
Faneuil, March 14, 1743, by Master 
Lovell, of the Latin School." When 
Boston was occupied by the British 
troops in 1775-76, theatrical entertain- 
ments, particularly ridiculing the patri- 
ots, were given in its hall. 

It has been the scene of many bril- 
liant social and political events. En- 
tertainments have been given here to 
distinguished men almost without num- 
ber. Its walls have echoed to the elo- 
quence of Samuel Adams, James Otis, 
Daniel Webster, Wendell Phillips, 
Charles Sumner, and others. In this 
hall are many interesting portraits. 
The largest is the great painting repre- 
senting Daniel Webster addressing the 
United States Senate on the occasion 
of his celebrated reply to Hayne of 
South CaroUna 



126 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [l773 

224. Indian War-whoop. — It was voted that the meeting be dis- 
solved. The crowd immediately ran to Griffin's Wharf. At the 
same time, twenty or thirty persons from the North End of the 
town, dressed as Indians, crossed Fort Hill, and at once boarded 
the tea ships. So expeditious was the proceeding that in two 
hours' time they had hoisted out of three vessels three hundred 
and forty-two chests of tea, broken them open, and discharged their 
contents into the salt water. The whole business was conducted in 
a very quiet way, with a multitude of spectators upon and around 
the wharf. No damage was done to the vessels or any other prop- 
erty, and when the work was finished the people returned to their 
homes in Boston and the surrounding towns. 

225. Retaliatory Measures. — Such a bold proceeding could not 
go unpunished, and retaliatory measures were at once adopted by 
the British government. The climax was now reached. Party 
lines were drawn. The patriots were termed Whigs ; the royalists 
were called Tories. Nothing apparently could now prevent a union 
of the colonies. Military companies, called " minute-men," were 
formed. From this time on it was evident that but little was needed 
to throw all the colonies into open rebellion, and that a spark would 
kindle the flames of war. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

ENGLAND RETALIATES. 

226. George the Third. — King George III. was an obstinate man, 
arbitrary, and stubborn. He began his reign in 1760, when he was 
twenty-two years old. He died in 1820, after a reign of sixty years, 
the longest reign in the entire history of England. He was not a 
great statesman, and his chief characteristic was what we may call 
persistent wilfulness. He was now thoroughly bent on reducing 
the colonies to a state of submission. Lord North, his prime min- 
ister, was also hostile to the colonies. They therefore were able 
to secure from Parliament a series of the most severe and repres- 
sive measures. 



1774] 



ENGLAND RETALIATES. 



127 



227. The Americans Still Loyal. — The people of the colonies were 
strongly inchned towards loyalty to the mother country. They were 
Englishmen, and had no wish to be separated from Great Britain. 
Most revolutions are brought about by the leaders of the people. 
In this case, both leaders and people were averse to revolution, and 
only yielded to it when no other means were available for retaining 
their rights and their liberties. Had the British government mani- 
fested a spirit of conciliation, had it yielded to the better sentiment 
in America, it would have made the Revolution impossible, but 
Providence, which so often clearly shapes the course of nations, as 
well as of individuals, planned otherwise. 

228. "The Intolerable Acts." — In March, 1774, full intelligence of 
the proceedings at Boston was received at London. Before the end 
of April the British ministry had pro- 
posed, and Parliament had passed, 
a series of acts, which made the 
Revolution only a question of time. 
These were called by the colonists 
" The Intolerable Acts." They were 
intended to crush Massachusetts and 
awe the other colonies into obedi- 
ence. The "Boston Port Bill" closed 
the town of Boston against all com- 
merce until the tea which had been 
destroyed w.as paid for, and the in- 
habitants of the town returned to 
manifest loyalty. The "Massachu- 
setts Act " changed the charter of 
that colony to such an extent that ^^°'^^ "^^ 

the governor's council and the sheriffs were to be appointed by the 
Crown; juries were to be selected by the sheriffs; and all town 
meetings were strictly forbidden, except by special permission of 
the governor. General Gage, who had been appointed commander- 
in-chief of the British forces in the colonies, was made governor, and 
four regiments of soldiers with proper artillery were sent to Boston 
to support him in his arbitrary measures, and to overawe the people. 
A special act required the transportation of offenders and witnesses 
to England or her other colonies for trial. 




128 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1774 

229. The Quebec Act. —The "Quebec Act," passed the same 
year, proposed ostensibly to regulate the government of Canada; 
but it would have resulted in raising a barrier between the Canadian 
provinces and the thirteen colonies, now on the verge of war. This 
act granted the free exercise of the Roman Catholic religion, and 
extended the province from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Missis- 
sippi River, which province was to be governed by officers appointed 
by the Crown. As might have been expected, the news of these 
severe,'repressive acts crystallized at once every element of union 

in the colonies. The points embodied 
included all for which the colonies had 
been contending. The Quebec Act 
would cut off the colonies from the 
Western expansion to which they had 
been hopefully looking forward as 
plainly open to them for future settle- 
ment. 

230. Public Sentiment in Great Britain. 
— It must not be supposed that these 
severe and unreasonable acts passed 
Parliament without strong and vigorous 
opposition. The king and his prime minister had a majority of 
Parliament in favor of their extreme measures of opposition to the 
colonies ; but with only two or three exceptions all the eminent and 
shining lights of the country, under the leadership of Edmund 'Burke, 
were strongly opposed to these unjust measures of the government, 
and persistently advocated the rights of the colonies. These va- 
rious acts of Parliament at once not only provoked a feeling of hos- 
tility to the home government, but also cemented every colony with 
all the others in one common sentiment of union. Thus it came to 
pass that the thirteen North American colonies rebelled against the 
mother country, and the American Revolution was precipitated. 
We shall see in the subsequent chapters how united the colonies 
became, and how patriotically and courageously they fought for 
independence, which, after years of desolating war, they finally 
secured. 



Bancroft says: "The king set 
himself, his ministers, Parliament, and 
all Great Britain to subdue to his will 
one stubborn town on the sterile coast 
of the Massachusetts Bay. The odds 
against it were fearful ; but it showed 
a life inextinguishable, and had been 
chosen to keep guard over the liberties 
of mankind. The old world had not 
its parallel. It counted but 16,000 in- 
habitants of European origin, all of 
whom learned to read and write. Good 
public schools were the foundation of 
this political system." 



I760-I774] 



CHRONOLOGY. 



129 



CHRONOLOGY. 

1760. England — Reign of George III. 

1764. England — Parliament passes the Navigation Laws. 
England — Parliament votes to tax the colonies. 

1765. England — Parliament passes the Stamp Act. March. 
New York — Stamp Act Congress, October 7. 

1766. England — Parliament repeals the Stamp Act, March. 

1767. England — Parliament taxes tea, etc. 

1768. Massachusetts — British troops arrive. 
1770. Massachusetts — Boston Massacre, March 5. 

England — Parliament removes taxes except on tea. 

1772. Rhode Island — Burning of the " Gaspee," June 9. 

1773. Massachusetts — Boston Tea Party, December 16. 

1774. England — Parliament passes the intolerable gets. 




Ensigrt c&rried by 
New En^Und &hipv before the RevplwJtofv. 



OBlacfeboarD anal^si^* 



INDEPENDENCE { 



Military 



^ Government . < 



Resistance at Salem. 
Concord and Lexingtqn. 

TiCONDEROGA AND CrOWN PoINT. 

Battle of Bunker Hill. 
Washington the Commander. 
Evacuation of Boston. 

r Committees of Correspondence. 
Provincial Assemblies. 
First Continental Congress. 
Second Continental Congress. 
Steps toward Independence. 
The Declaraiton. 




SECTION VI. 
RESISTANCE LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE. 1775-1776. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. 

231. Committees of Correspondence. — The colonies all had what 
they termed " Committees of Correspondence," and through these 
committees they kept one another informed by letter of what was 
going on. In Boston, only one town 
meeting a year was permitted by the 
governor. The citizens accordingly 
held one town meeting, and by ad- 
journing from time to time made it 
last through all the year. Through- 
out the colonies first steps were being 
taken. They knew not whither these 
steps would lead ; they hoped to a 
redress of grievances. As the result 
showed, they could lead only to inde- 
pendence. 

232. A Continental Congress proposed. 
— On the 17th of June, 1774, Samuel 
Adams proposed in the Massachusetts 
General Court, held at Salem, that a 
Continental Congress should be called 
to meet in Philadelphia the first of 
September. Five delegates from Massachusetts were chosen. 
Two days earlier, Rhode Island had elected delegates to such a 
congress. 



Samuel Adams, one of the leaders 
of the Revohitionary patriots, probably 
foresaw independence quite as early 
as any other man. His influence in 
shaping public sentiment for absolute 
independence of Great Britain was, 
doubtless, second to that of no one. 
He was born in Boston in 1722, and died 
there in 1803. He was graduated from 
Harvard when he was eighteen years 
old. On taking the master's degree in 
1743, he discussed the affirmative of 
the question, " whether it be lawful 
to resist the supreme magistrate if the 
Commonwealth cannot otherwise be 
preserved." He was always courage- 
ous and ardent, but was also always 
prudent and successful in bending the 
wills of others to his own purposes. 
His prominent characteristics were 
" an enthusiastic love of liberty, an 
inextinguishable hate of tyranny, great 
promptness of decision, and inflexible 
firmness." 



132 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1774 



233. The Massachusetts Provincial Congress. — A few months later, 
the House again met in Salem and resolved itself into a Provincial 
Congress to be joined by such other members as should be chosen. 
They then adjourned to Concord, and there elected John Hancock 
president. After transacting what business was necessary, they 

adjourned to Cambridge, and there, 
October 2 1 st, 1 774, a committee drew up 
a plan for the immediate defence of the 
colony. A committee of safety A^as ap- 
pointed to attend to all military matters, 
and a committee of supplies to furnish 
resources for the committee of safety. 

234. Massachusetts raises an Army. — 
In November, this Congress decided 
to raise an army of twelve thousand 
men, and appointed proper officers for 
it. Thus a revolutionary government 
was in full operation in Massachusetts. 
The drift toward revolution was appar- 
ent in every colony. The Provincial 
Congress remained the government of 
the people in Massachusetts until the 
19th of July, 1775, when it dissolved it- 
self, and a new House of Representa- 
tives, whose members had been chosen 
by the several towns, according to their 
usage and their charter, organized, by 
choosing James Warren as speaker. 
James Bowdoin was made president. 
The present seal of the Commonwealth 
was adopted. 

235. The First Congress. — The first 
Continental Congress met in Carpenters' 

Hall, Philadelphia, on the 5th of September, 1774. This Congress 
resulted from an almost universal and simultaneous demand from 
the various colonies. The first call came from Virginia. 

236. Proposed by Massachusetts. — The Massachusetts General 
Court, at Salem, on June 17th, appointed five delegates to a Congress 



The Massachusetts Seal shows 
the figure of an Anglo-American hold- 
ing a drawn sword, with the motto 
" Ense petit placidam sub libertate 
quietem.^^ (With the sword she seeks 
calm peace under liberty.) The story 
of this motto is an interesting one. 
Algernon Sidney was a famous patriot 
in Cromwell's time. In 1659 he was 
one of the council of State, and he was 
sent to Denmark on a political mission. 
While there he wrote his name in the 
king's autograph book, and added this 
motto in Latin. The minister from 
France felt that this was an insult to 
the monarchs of Europe, and cut out 
the motto from the king's book. In 
1772 Sidney's works, having been out 
of print for a long time, were repub- 
liihed in a fine edition by that other 
famous lover of liberty, Thomas Hollis. 
The frontispiece was a profile likeness 
of Sidney, and underneath it was told 
this story of the Latin motto. Hollis 
was a great friend and benefactor of 
Harvard College, and he sent over a 
copy of this book, and presented it to 
the Harvard Library. There it fell 
under the eyes of the Massachusetts 
patriots. Its sentiment so neatly ex- 
pressed their own thought, and was 
so applicable to the time and the con- 
ditions surrounding them, that they 
promptly adopted it for the motto of 
this new Commonwealth. It has never 
been changed, and will doubtless go 
down to the centuries to come, perpet- 
uating the sentiment so dear to the 
heart of that famous liberty-loving 
patriot of Cromwell's time. 



t774] 



THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. 



133 



'* That might be convened the first of September at Philadelphia." 
All the colonies except Georgia appointed delegates. This Con- 
gress included many sagacious men, 
well versed in governmental affairs. 
Among them may be named George 
Washington, Richard Henry Lee, 
Peyton Randolph, Patrick Henry, 
and Benjamin Harrison, of Virginia; 
Samuel Adams and John Adams, 
of Massachusetts; John Dickinson, 
of Pennsylvania ; Christopher Gads- 
den and John Rutledge, of South 
Carolina; Dr. John VVitherspoon, 
President of the College of New 
Jersey; Stephen Hopkins, of Rhode 
Island ; Roger Sherman, of Connect- 
icut; and John Jay, of New York. 

237. What it Did.— All votes taken 
by this Congress were by States, 
every State having one vote. 

The important action was as follows : — 




John Hancock. 



(After a painting by J. Singleton Copley in the 
Boston Museum of Fine Arts.) 



1. A declaration of rights. 

2. An agreement to stop exports to Great Britain and imports from 

there, and to discontinue the slave trade after the first of December. 

3. An address to the British people. 

4. A petition to the king. 

5. The formation of the *^ American Association." 

6. An address to the people of Canada, Nova Scotia, and the Floridas. 

7. A provision for another Congress, to be held in May, 1775. 



238. How it was Done. — The business of this Congress was exe- 
cuted with remarkable skill. William Pitt said : ** For solidity of 
reason, force of sagacity, and wisdom of conclusion under a com- 
bination of difficult circumstances, no nation or body of men can 
stand in preference to the General Congress at Philadelphia. The 
histories of Greece and Rome give us nothing equal to it, and all 
attempts to impose servitude upon such a mighty continental nation 
uiust be in vain." 



134 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1775 



CHAPTER XXXV. 



THE FIRST ARMED RESISTANCE. 



239. Resistance. — The king and his prime minister were bent on 
subduing the colonies. They thought the task would be an easy 
one. The appeal of the Continental Congress to the king was as 
idle as the wind. But all the colonies were solid in their determina- 
tion that they would never submit to 
the king's arbitrary measures. 

240. Independence foreseen. — Here 
and there one among the leaders was 
able to see that a revolution was in- 
evitable. James Otis, Samuel Adams, 
and Joseph Hawley, in Massachusetts, 
and Patrick Henry in Virginia, were 
probably the first men who clearly saw 
that independence was the only solu- 
tion of the problem. Washington fore- 
saw that these parchment measures of 
the Congress would prove of no avail. 
Hawley of Massachusetts wrote, " After 
all, we must fight" When Patrick Henry 
heard his letter read, he replied, " I am 
of that man's opinion." 

241. Leslie at Salem. — Gage had for- 
tified Boston Neck, and determined to 
prevent the people from arming them- 
selves. He sent Colonel Leslie with 
three hundred of the king's troops from 
Castle Island to Salem, to capture a 
number of cannon secreted there. On 

Sunday morning, February 26th, 1775, this force sailed out of 
Boston Harbor, and by noon anchored at Marblehead. The good 
people of that town at once suspected the object of this Sunday 
excursion. Major John Pedrick mounted his horse, and, riding 



Patrick Henry in Virginia, and 
Samuel Adams in Massachusetts, 
lighted the torch of liberty for the 
South and the North, preceding the 
American Revolution. Henry was born 
in 1736, and died in 1799. He was a 
good Latin scholar, and acquired some 
proficiency in mathematics before he 
was fifteen years of age. He was ad- 
mitted to the bar at the age of twenty- 
four years. His famous speech against 
the Stamp Act gave him a great repu- 
tation throughout the country He was 
a member of the Continental Congress 
in 1774, of which he was the first 
speaker. His eloquence astonished 
all, and he soon took rank as the 
greatest American orator. He caused 
the colony of Virginia to be put in a 
thorough state of defence. He was the 
first Republican governor of his State, 
serving from 1776 to 1779. After the 
close of the war he was again governor 
until 1786. In 1788 he was a member 
of the State Convention which ratified 
the National Constitution, which he 
opposed with all his eloquence and 
strength. He declined high offices 
under the Federal government, offered 
him by Washington and by Adams. 

(See his " Life and Times," in two 
volumes, by his grandson, William 
Wirt Henry.) 



1775] LEXINGTON AND CONCORD. 1 35 

rapidly to Salem, gave notice to the people assembled in their 
several churches of the approach of Leslie and the troops. The 
services were instantly suspended. All repaired to the North 
Bridge. 

242. At Salem North Bridge. — The draw of the bridge was raised, 
and Colonel Timothy Pickering, commanding the militia, prepared 
to resist the crossing of Leslie. A parley ensued. Leslie threat- 
ened to fire. He was instantly warned that should his men fire, not 
a man of them would leave Salem alive. Rev. Thomas Barnard, 
pastor of the North Church, finally effected a compromise. It was 
that the bridge should be lowered and Leslie allowed to cross it and 
proceed thirty rods beyond, on his promise as a man and a soldier 
that he would then countermarch his forces and return to Boston. 
This was done; but in the mean time the cannon had been spirited 
away under cover of the buildings, and concealed under leaves in the 
woods beyond. This was the first armed resistance to British sol- 
diers, and but for the prompt sagacity and skill of Mr. Barnard, 
would doubtless have resulted in the first bloodshed of the Revolu- 
tion. As it was, however, the affair was bloodless ; the colonistii 
saved their cannon, and Leslie returned crestfallen to report his ill- 
success to his general. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

LEXINGTON AND CONCORD. 

243. The Expedition. — Gage was alert. He was determined that 
the ** rebels," as he called them, should not gather military supplies. 
The committee of the Provincial Congress were as constantly active. 
They had caused military stores to be deposited at Concord and 
Worcester. Concord was twenty miles from Boston, and Worcester 
was forty. Gage turned his attention to Concord. At eleven o'clock 
on the evening of April i8th, eight hundred regulars, the flower of 
the king's army in Boston, embarked upon the Charles River, from 
behind the Common, proceeded up the river, and landed at Phipps' 
farm; from whence they marched to Concord, under command of 



136 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1775 



Lieutenant-Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn. The major led the 
advanced troops. News of the expedition had preceded them. 

244. At Lexington. — A considerable body of minute-men from the 
surrounding country had gathered upon the green near the meeting- 
house in Lexington. About five o'clock in the morning of April 
19th, 1775, Major Pitcairn at the head of his troops arrived at Lex- 
ington. He rode around the meeting-house, and with drawn sword 
in one hand and a pistol in the other, called out, " Disperse, you 

rebels ! Throw down your arms, and 
disperse ! " A solemn silence ensued. 
He rode a little further, fired his pistol, 
flourished his sword, and ordered his 
soldiers to fire. The patriots scattered, 
concealed themselves here and there 
under cover, and continued to annoy 
the enemy with desultory firing. 

245. On to Concord. — The detachment 
marched on to Concord. The provin- 
cials, finding that the regulars were too 
numerous to warrant attacking them, 
retired across the North Bridge, and 
waited for reinforcements. The British 
disabled several cannon, threw five hun- 
dred pounds of ball into the river, and 
destroyed sixty barrels of flour. The 
militia were now reinforced, and ad- 
vanced upon the regulars. The British 
fired first, and at this first fire. Captain 
Isaac Davis of Acton and one private 
soldier were killed. The fire was re- 
turned ; a skirmish ensued ; and the British retreated, having lost 
several men, killed and wounded, and some prisoners. Meantime 
Gage had despatched Lord Percy with nearly one thousand men 
and two pieces of cannon to support his advanced forces. The 
brigade marched out, playing " Yankee Doodle." 

246. The Retreat from Lexington to Boston. — Lord Percy came up 
with the retreating column at Lexington, and gave the troops under 
Colonel Smith a breathing time, especially as they now had cannon 



Yankee. — " You may wish to know 
the origin of the term Yankee. It 
was a cant, favorite word with farmer 
Jonathan Hastings, of Cambridge, about 
1 7 13. Two aged ministers, who were 
at the college in that town, have told 
me they remembered it to have been 
then in use among the students, but 
had no recollection of it before that 
period. The inventor used it to express 
excellency. A Yankee good horse, or 
Yankee cider, and the like, were an ex- 
cellent good horse, and excellent cider. 
The students used to hire horses of 
him; their intercourse with him, and 
his use of the term upon all occasions, 
led them to adopt it, and they gave him 
the name of Yankee Jon. He was a 
worthy, honest man, but no conjurer. 
This could not escape the notice of the 
collegiates. Yankee probably became 
a by-word among them to express a 
weak, simple, awkward person ; was 
carried from the college with them 
when they left it, and was in that way 
circulated and established through the 
country, till from its currency in New 
England, it was at length taken up and 
unjustly applied to the New Englanders 
in common, as a term of reproach." 
(Gordon's American War, pp. 324-5.) 



1775] 



LEXINGTON AND CONCORD. 



^?>1 



which prevented the provincials from pressing upon their rear in a 
direct Hne. But the mihtia and minute-men were rapidly collecting 
from all quarters. The whole British column was obliged to renew 
their march or have their retreat cut off. Constant skirmishing con- 
tinued, until the regulars reached Boston. The loss of the British 
was two hundred and seventy-three ; of the Americans, eighty-eight. 

247. Massachusetts raises an Army. — The Provincial Congress at 
once resolved "that an army of thirty thousand men be immediately 




raised and established ; that thirteen thousand six hundred be from 
this province ; and that a letter and delegate be sent to the several 
colonies of New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island." The 
military headquarters were fixed at Cambridge. General Artemas 
Ward was made commander-in-chief of the Massachusetts troops. 
General John Thomas commanded at Roxbury. Captain John 
Derby, of Salem, received the first naval commission from Massa- 
chusetts, and sailed at once for England with despatches from the 
Provincial Congress to Dr Franklin, containing an account of the 



1-28 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [^775 



O 



Lexington fight and an address to the inhabitants of Great Britain. 
The war of the Revolution was begun, and it was now clear that 
there would be no peace, except by submission or independence. 

248. Military Activity everywhere. — - Despatches giving an account 
of the battle were sent post-haste through all the colonies. Imme- 
diately military activity was displayed everywhere. Twenty thou- 
sand militia hastened to Boston. In Rhode Island a brigade of 
three regiments, with a train of artillery, was placed under command 
of General Nathaniel Greene. At Charleston, South Carolina, 
volunteers were armed from the arsenal. In Georgia the royal 
magazine was seized. The power of the royal governors — from 
Massachusetts to Georgia — ■ was gone. Committees of safety were 
appointed to provide for emergencies, and to call out the troops. 
Soon twenty thousand men were at work throwing up intrenchments 
abound Boston to shut up the British in that city. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

TICONDEROGA AND BUNKER HILL. 

249. From Connecticut to Vermont. — General Gage had set the 
example of seizing military stores. Retaliation appeared to be not 
only warrantable but necessary for self-defence. A secret expedition 
was planned by some leaders in Connecticut. A few sterling men, 
having procured a quantity of powder and ball, set off on horseback 
for Bennington, in Vermont, then called the New Hampshire Grants. 

250. Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold. — At Bennington they found 
Colonel Ethan Allen, a native of Connecticut. At Castleton they 
were joined by Colonel Benedict Arnold, who had been commis- 
sioned by the Massachusetts committee to raise four hundred men 
for the same purpose. It was agreed that Allen should take com- 
mand, and at daybreak, May lOth, with eighty-three men, Allen and 
Arnold marched side by side to the entrance of Fort Ticonderoga, 
overpowered the sentinel, and demanded a surrender. The fort 
was commanded by Captain De La Place, to whom this attack was a 
complete surprise. 



1775] 



TICONDEROGA AND BUNKER HILL. 



139 



251. The Fort surrenders. — The fort was out of repair; and as he 
had but about thirty effective men, La Place could do nothing but 
surrender. The boats, which had brought Colonel Allen and his 
men across the lake, returned at once for the remainder of the force, 
which was under command of Colonel Seth Warner. Ticondero^ja 

o 

had surrendered, however, before these men could cross. 

252. Crown Point surrenders. — Colonel Warner immediately set 
out for Crown Point, which he captured on the 12th. Warner was 
left in command at Crown 

Point, and Colonel Arnold 
at Ticonderoga. These two 
successes were of great im- 
portance to the colonies, 
because it gave them a large 




CASTLE I. 

9 



sur 



amount of military stores. 
Soon after, these brave offi- 
cers captured a sloop of war 
which was lying at St. John's 
at the foot of the lake, and 
sailed with it for Ticonde- 
roga. These successes gave 

the Americans full command of Lake Champlain and the 
rounding country. 

253. Bunker Hill. — And now we come to the first real battle of 
the war. The Massachusetts Committee of Safety recommended to 
the Provincial Congress to occupy Bunker Hill and Dorchester 
Heights. The Congress therefore passed an order on the i6th of 
June, directing Colonel Prescott with one thousand men to take 
possession of the hill the following night, and fortify it. Breed's 
Hill, however, either because more directly commanding the landing 
or from inadvertence, was marked out for the intrenchment, instead 
of Bunker Hill. In silence the patriots pushed forward, carrying 
arms, shovels, and dark lanterns. Between midnight and the dawn 
of day they had thrown up a redoubt about eight rods square. 

254. The British open Fire. — The British ship "Lively" was 
stationed in the channel directly opposite. When its captain came 
on deck in the early dawn, June 17th, 1775, he discovered the breast- 
works, and about four o'clock opened fire. Soon after, the British 



140 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[^775 



artillery on Copp's Hill began firing upon the Yankee fort. It was a 
hot morning, but the tired Americans continued the work with their 
shovels until noon, notwithstanding a heavy fire both from the ships 
in the channel and from Copp's Hill in Boston. During the forenoon 
the Americans had succeeded in throwing up breastworks from the 
east side of their redoubt to the bottom of the hill northward. 




The Battle of Bunker Hill. 



(Copyright. iS»o, i 
Silver, Burden cV Cdui 



Although an incessant shower of shot and bombs was rained upon 
them by the batteries, yet but one man was killed. 

255. British Troops transported to Charlestown. — Between twelve 
and one o'clock the British forces to the number of about three 
thousand men were transported by boats and barges from Boston 
to Charlestown, under command of Major-General Howe and 
Brigadier-General Pigot. The regulars formed in two lines, and 
advanced deliberately towards the American works. 

256. American Officers in Command. — The patriots were under 
command of Colonel Prescott. Colonel Stark commanded the 



1775] TICONDEROGA AND BUNKER HILL. I4I 

New Hampshire troops, and General Putnam had selected Captain 
Knowlton to command the Connecticut company. General Warren, 
General Pomeroy, and General Putnam were all on the field, aiding 
and encouraging here and there as the case required. The Ameri- 
cans reserved their fire till the regulars were within ten or twelve 
rods, when they poured upon them a terrific discharge of musketry. 

257. The British repulsed. — The contest continued until the 
stream of American fire was so incessant, and did such execution, 
that the regulars retreated in disorder and with great precipitation 
toward the landing-place, where their boats still were. At length 
they were rallied by their ofiicers, and a second time advanced with 
steady pace up the hill, marching with apparent reluctance toward 
the intrenchments. The Americans reserved their fire till the enemy 
were within five or six rods. 

258. The British repulsed Again. — The execution was fearful. 
Some of their offtcers declared it would be downright butchery to 
lead their men against such lines. But British honor was at stake. 
The fortifications must be carried. General Howe and his oflficers 
doubled their exertions for renewing the attack the third time. The 
ammunition of the Americans was exhausted. Meantime the town 
had been fired in several places; and one great blaze, burning with 
amazing fury, was rapidly sweeping from existence three hundred 
dwelling-houses, and nearly two hundred other buildings. 

259. The Americans retreat. — Reluctantly but unavoidably the 
provincials were ordered to retreat. They were forced by absolute 
necessity to withdraw. They, however, delayed, and for some time 
kept the enemy at bay. They finally withdrew in good order across 
the neck which joins Charlestown to the main land. While these 
brave men were retreating. General Warren was shot in the head 
and died instantly. 

260. The British Losses. — The British held possession of the field, 
but the loss which they had sustained was fearful, amounting in killed 
and wounded to more than one thousand men, including sixty-nine 
oflficers. Some companies were almost all either killed or wounded. 

261. The American Losses. — The entire loss of the provincials was 
between four hundred and five hundred ; the majority being wounded 
only, many of them but slightly. Each army lost about one-third of 
its force. The loss of General Warren, who only three days before 



142 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1775 



had received his appointment from the Massachusetts Congress as 
a major-general, was the occasion of great sorrow. The British 
considered his death as better for them than that of five hundred 

men. Charlestown was now a heap of 
ruins, the women and children barely 
escaping with their lives. 

262. Results of the Battle. — The re- 
sult of this battle on the one hand was 
to inspire courage in the minds of the 
colonists, and on the other to give to 
the British a clearer idea of the great- 
ness of the task which they had under- 
taken. General Gage at once saw that 
it would be difficult to subdue America. 
To the Americans the consequences of 
the battle were equal to a decided vic- 
tory. General Ward in a general order 
said: *' We shall finally come off victo- 
rious, and triumph over the enemies of 
freedom and America." Dr. Franklin 
wrote to his English friends : '* The 
Americans will fight; England has lost her colonies forever." On 
the other side. General Gage wrote to Lord Dartmouth : '* The 
rebels are not the despicable rabble whom many have supposed 
them to be. The conquest of this country is not easy." 



General Joseph Warren was born 
in Roxbury, 1741, and was graduated at 
Harvard at the age of eighteen. His po- 
Htical sentiments were often in advance 
of public opinion ; for he held that all 
taxation imposed by the British gov- 
ernment upon the colonies was nothing 
less than tyranny. His firmness and 
decision as a leader were only equalled 
by the prudence and wariness of all his 
plans. He was twice chosen to deliver 
the oration on the 5th of March, in com- 
memoration of the Boston Massacre. 
The second of these was pronounced 
in the Old South Meeting House, in 
defiance of the threats of the British of- 
ficers, that any man who should make 
a public address on that anniversary 
should lose his life. He was a delegate 
to the Massachusetts Congress in 1774, 
over which he presided. He was chair- 
man of the Committee of Public Safety, 
and as such exercised the executive 
power of the new commonwealth. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 



THE SIEGE OF BOSTON. 



263. The Second Congress. — On the 10th of May, 1775, a few hours 
after the surrender of Ticonderoga, the second Continental Congress 
met at Philadelphia. It was a notable body, and it had a remark- 
able work before it Peyton Randolph was its first president. Its 
members were experienced and sagacious men. Among them were 
Washington, Samuel Adams, and Patrick Henry; Franklin, Jay, and 



^775] 



THE SIEGE OF BOSTON. 



U3 



Livingston; John Adams, Richard Henry Lee, and George Clinton; 
and others ahnost equally well known throughout the colonies, con- 
spicuous for their ability and statesmanship. They sought a redress 
of grievances, but it soon began to appear that independence was 
their only means of relief. They listened to the narrative of the 
deeds at Lexington and Concord. They learned of the capture of 
Ticonderoga and Crown Point. It was apparent that a continental 
army must be organized. 

264. Washington appointed Commander-in-Chief. — A request for a 
continental army came from the Congress of Massachusetts, and John 
Adams suggested that 



Washington 



be 




should 
appointed commander-in- 
chief. On the 15th of 
June, he was elected by 
a unanimous ballot. His 
commission styled him 
*' General and Commander- 
in-Chief of the Army of 
the United Colonies." 
Tliis phrase — "The United 
Colonies " — continued to 
be used until the Declara- 
tion of Independence sub- 
stituted the name ** The 
United States." Congress 
now assumed the defence 
of the country: it adopted 
a continental currency; it 
established a treasury de- 
partment ; it organized a post-office department and appointed 
Franklin as postmaster-general ; it created an army and appointed 
a general, four major-generals, and eight brigadier-generals. 

265. The New Commander. — The principal part of the army being 
in the vicinity of Boston, Washington repaired thither. He arrived 
at Cambridge on the 2d of July. On the next day, the continental 
forces were formed in close column upon and around the Common. 
When they had been drawn up in order, Washington, beneath a tall 



The "Washington Elm," Cambridge, Mass. 



144 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [^775-1776 

elm-tree, whose long and graceful branches seemed to nod assent as 
they waved back and forth in the summer breeze, mounted his horse, 
drew his sword, and assumed command. This was almost one hun- 
dred and twenty-five years ago, yet the old elm is still standing, — 
an object lesson in patriotism to multitudes of pilgrims, and a con- 
stant reminder of the great deeds of the fathers to the thousands of 
students gathered from all parts of our broad land within the halls 
of Harvard University. 

266. Washington's Army. — Washington was now forty-three years 
of age. He was tall, sinewy, well-proportioned. '* His chest was 
broad, his figure stately, blending dignity of presence with ease." 
He was dressed according to the fashion of the time, in a *' blue 
broadcloth coat, buff small-clothes, silk stockings, and a cocked 
hat." The army which Washington was to command numbered 
about fourteen thousand men. It was a motley crowd, badly clothed, 
poorly armed, with many unfit for service. In August, Washing- 
ton divided his forces into three divisions, and placed them under 
command respectively of Generals Ward, Lee, and Putnam. The 
headquarters were at Roxbury, Cambridge, and Winter Hill. 
Washington made every effort to feed and clothe his army, and 
to bring them to a better condition of military discipline. He issued 
orders respecting profanity, gambling, religious bigotry, gossip, and 
indecency, which illustrate his conception of the character of a 
patriotic citizen soldiery. 

267. The Winter of 1775-76. — The winter which followed was long 
and wearisome to all. All connection between Boston and the sur- 
rounding country was cut off, and Gage was completely penned up 
in the town. There was much suffering among the inhabitants from 
a scarcity of provisions. The British army endeavored to make the 
best of their situation. The Old South meeting-house was turned 
into a riding-school. Faneuil Hall became a play-house, where the 
officers appeared as actors, and balls and even a masquerade were 
planned. 

268. Boston evacuated. — In March, W^ashington fortified Dor- 
chester Heights by night. In the morning, Lord Howe, who was 
now in command of the British forces, was astonished to see these 
new intrenchments, which overlooked and threatened the city. 
General Clinton had advised him to fortify this height; his neglect 



1775-1783. 




Copyright^ 1892, m MacCoun's Historical Geography of the United States. 



1775-1776] FIRST STEPS TOWARD INDEPENDENCE. ^ I45 

cost him the loss of Boston. He remembered the lesson which he 
had learned at Bunker Hill, and so instead of attacking this south- 
ern frontier, he decided to leave the city, and accordingly sailed 
away with his army, fleet, and many Tories for Halifax. The city 
was evacuated March 17tli, 1776, and the continental troops from 
Roxbury at once marched in. From Cambridge they crossed in 
boats. The British had left behind them, in the hurry of their flight, 
several hundred cannon, many thousand bushels of wheat, barley, 
and oats, a large number of horses, and bedding and clothing for 
the soldiers. On the 22d of March the restrictions on intercourse 
between country and town were removed, and many citizens of Bos- 
ton, who had for a long time been exiled from their homes, returned, 
and all hearts were touched at " witnessing the tender interviews 
and fond embraces of those who had been separated." 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

FIRST STEPS TOWARD INDEPENDENCE. 

269. Expedition against Quebec. — Late in the summer of 1775, 
General Montgomery, with a considerable force, made an expedition 
by way of Lake Champlain against Canada. He captured St. Johns, 
found Montreal deserted, took possession there, and pushed on to 
Quebec. Meantime, Colonel Benedict Arnold, a brave soldier and 
a brilHant officer, accompanied by Aaron Burr, with more than one 
thousand men, joined Montgomery at Quebec, having made a des- 
perate march through the wilds of Maine, in which they endured 
untold hardships. Before they reached the St. Lawrence their sup- 
plies were entirely gone. 

270. Americans Unsuccessful. — The two generals joined their forces 
about the first of December, advanced upon Quebec, and demanded 
its surrender. Montgomery was killed December ist, and Arnold 
was v/ounded. The city was defended by more than two hundred 
guns besides the infantry. A portion of the invading army surren- 
dered ; and at the approach of spring, the remaining forces were 

10 



146 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1776 

glad to leave Canada in the hands of England, and retrace their 
steps homeward. 

271. The Colonies declare for Independence. — The leaders in the 
Continental Congress were patiently waiting the development of 
public opinion. The first explicit sanction given by any State for 
independence was the action of North Carolina, April 12th, 1776, 
when the North Carolina Congress unanimously authorized their 
delegates in the Continental Congress, in concurrence with delegates 
of the other colonies, to declare independence of foreign allegiance. 
At Charlotte, North Carolina, as early as May 31st, 1775, the county 
of Mecklenburg had, by a convention of delegates, declared in favor 
of absolute independence. 

272. Rhode Island the First State. — The first State actually to 
declare herself independent of Great Britain was Rhode Island. 
This act was passed May 4th, 1776, just two months prior to the 
Declaration of Independence by the Continental Congress. This 
famous act declares that " In all States existing by contract, protec- 
tion and allegiance are reciprocal, the latter being due only in con- 
sequence of the former." The act then goes on to say that hereafter 
all commissions for ofifices, and all writs and processes in law, shall 
be made out in the name and by the authority of " The Governor 
and Company of the English Colony of Rhode Island and Provi- 
dence Plantations, . . . that the Courts of Law be no longer entitled 
nor considered as the King's Courts, and that no instrument in writing 
. . . shall mention the year of the said King's reign." 

In closing the record of the General Assembly the words ** God 
save the King" were changed, and " God save the United Colo- 
nies " appeared for the first time on the records of the ancient 
plantation. From this time we may regard Rhode Island as an 
independent State. 

273. South Carolina On the 23d of April the court at Charles- 
ton, South Carolina, was opened and the Chief-Justice charged the 
Grand Jury in these words: "The law of the land authorizes me 
to declare, and it is my duty to declare the law, that George the 
Third, king of Great Britain, has abdicated the government, that he 
has no authority over us, and we owe no obedience to him." 

274. Virginia quickly follows. — On the 6th of May, the House 
of Burgesses of Virginia met at Williamsburg, but " as they were 



1776J THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. 1 47 

of the opinion that the ancient constitution had been subverted 
by the king and Parliament of Great Britain, they dissolved them- 
selves unanimously, and thus the last vestige of the king's authority 
passed away from that colony." 

275. Other Colonies declare for Independence. — On the first day 
of May, Joseph Havvley of Massachusetts wrote: " For God's sake 
let there be a full revolution. Independence and a well-planned 
Continental Government will save us." A very large majority of 
the towns declared unanimously for independence. The choice 
of all New England was spontaneous and undoubted. On the 
14th of June, Connecticut instructed its delegates to favor inde- 
pendence, and a permanent union of the colonies. Thus one by 
one every colony demanded independence. 



CHAPTER XL. 

THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. 

276. The Declaration. — Hitherto the colonies had been struggling 
only for a redress of grievances. Richard Henry Lee early in 
June introduced into Congress a resolution declaring that These 
United Colonies are, and of right ougJu to be , free and independent 
States. The first day of July was agreed upon as the day of final 
action. On that day, in committee of the whole, they discussed 
the resolution. John Adams made a masterly argument in its 
favor, and John Dickinson, of Pennsylvania, opposed the measure 
as premature. In committee, nine colonies, two-thirds of the whole 
number, voted for the resolution. Action by the Congress was 
postponed until the next day. 

277- Declaration passed, July 2d. — July 2d the great step was to 
be taken. Every member of Congress seemed to be fully aware 
that, should they pass the resolution, then ** to recede would be 
infamy, and to persist might be destruction." The vote was 
decisive. New York was unable to vote; but twelve colonies, with 
none dissenting, agreed to adopt and stand by the following resolu- 
tion ; "These United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free 



148 



FORMATION OF THE NATION, 



[177b 



and independent States." The grandeur and heroism of this act can 
scarcely be comprehended. At the end of that great day, John 
Adams wrote as follows : " The greatest question has been decided 
which was ever debated in America, and a greater, perhaps, never 
was nor will be decided among men. Britain has been filled with 
folly, and America with wisdom. It is the will of Heaven that 
the two countries should be sundered forever." 

278. Jefferson drafts the Formal Document. — A committee had 
been appointed to draw up the declaration, and set forth the 
reasons for it. Of this committee Thomas Jefferson had received 

the largest number of votes, and 
was thus singled out " to draft the 
confession of faith of the rising 
empire." 

279. It passes and the Bell rings. — 
On the evening of the Fourth of July, 
Congress, having listened to the 
entire document as read by Jefferson, 
and having made some slight changes 
in it, " rendering its language more 
terse, more dispassionate, and more 
exact," came to the final vote. New 
York still abstained from voting; but 
twelve States, without one negative, 
agreed to this ** Declaration by the 
Representatives of the United States 
of America, in Congress assembled." 
The bell on the Pennsylvania State House, which was afterwards 
rung to announce that the measure had passed, bore the words 
around its base: "Proclaim liberty throughout the land, unto all 
the inhabitants thereof." Leviticus xxv. 10. 

Let every American become familiar with the words of this docu- 
ment, and cherish its phrases. (Appendix B.) Let every pupil in 
the public and private schools of the land, read it. Let its great 
truths and principles sink into our hearts. Its closing words were 
these: "And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance 
on the protection of DiVlNE PROVIDENCE, we mutually pledge to 
each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." 




The Liberty Bell. 

(Now hanging^ in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa.) 



I760-I7761 



CHRONOLOGY. 



149 



CHRONOLOGY. 

1760. England — Reign of George III. 

1774. Philadelphia — First Continental Congress meets, September 5. 
Philadelphia — Congress adopts Articles of Association. 

1775. Massachusetts — Armed resistance to British authority, February 2( 
Massachusetts — Lexington and Concord, April 19. 
Massachusetts — Siege of Boston. 

New York — Ticonderoga, May 10. 

New York — Crown Point, May 12. 

Philadelphia —Second Continental Congress meets, May 10. 

Philadelphia — Congress chooses a commander, June 15. 

Massachusetts — Bunker Hill, June 17. 

Massachusetts — Washington assumes command, July 3. 

Quebec — Americans defeated, December 31. 

1776. Massachusetts — Evacuation of Boston, March 17. 

Rhode Island — First colony to declare independence. May 4. 
Philadelphia — Declaration of Independence, July 4. 




Ft*^ used by <Ue New Cnpl.»nd troops 
A+ \\ic bi+He of Bwnker n,|l 



isiacftboatti analrs(i0. 



r New York . . 
New Jersey . 

Pennsylvania 
Burgoyne . . . 



0/^MPAIGNS 



France . . . . , 
Middle States 
Northwest . . 



OF THE ^ New York.. 

tlEVOLUTION O" *^^® ^®^ • • 

Treason . . . . 



In the Scutb . 



Yorktow^n . . 



Peace 



Battle of Long Island. 
Loss OF THE City. 
Battle of Trenton. 
Battle of Princeton. 
Lafayette. 

Battle of Brandywine. 
Loss of Philadelphia. 
Battle of Germantown. 
Battle of Bennington. 
Battle of Bemis' Heights. 
Battle of Saratoga. 
British Surrender. 
The Treaty. 
The French Fleet. 
British at Philadelphia, 
Americans at Valley Forge. 
Battle of Monmouth. 
Capture of Kaskaskia. 
Capture of Vincennes. 
Wayne at Stony Point. 
Paul Jones and the Serapis. 
Command of West Point. 
Plot with Andre. 
Execution of Andre. 
Plan to capture Arnold. 
Capture of Savannah. 
Surrender of Charleston. 
Loss of the South. 
Partisan Warfare. 
Camden and King's Mountain 
Battle of Cowpens. 
Greene in North Carolina. 

CORNWALLIS in VIRGINIA. 

The Siege. 

Surrender of Cornwallis. 
Loud North resigns. 
Five Commissioners. 
Three Important Points. 
Provisional Treaty. 
Treaty of Paris. 




tweu-ly RMnMiansry rit^. 



SECTION VII. 

STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 1776-178H. 



CHAPTER XLI. 

LOSS OF NEW YORK CITY. 

280. The United States of America. — The DECLARATION was 
passed on the Fourth of July, 1776, duly authenticated by the 
president and secretary, and was pubHshed to the world. It was 
not signed by the members of Congress until some time afterward. 
The thirteen British colonies had ceased to exist. They were no 
longer colonies but THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. The adop- 
tion of this declaration by the Congress was only an expression of 
the will of the people throughout the country. The news of its pas- 
sage was received with joy and rejoicing from Maine to Georgia. 

281. New York the Strategic Point. — And now the war was really 
begun in sober earnest. The British had been driven out of 
Boston, and now determined to strike a decisive blow at New York. 
If they could obtain possession of that city, they would control the 
Hudson River. This would effectually separate the New England 
colonies from those south of New York, and prevent their giving 
aid to each other. If they succeeded, they could then direct opera- 
tions, with good promise of success, against Boston on the one side, 
or Philadelphia on the other. 

282. Troops concentrate at New York. — General Howe, who had 
gone to Halifax from Boston, sailed for New York. His brother, 
Admiral Howe, came with reinforcements from England. General 
Clinton also arrived, from the south. Washington had anticipated 
this movement as soon as the British evacuated Boston, and had 



152 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1776 



labored incessantly to prepare New York for defence. The Brit- 
ish army had every advantage. It was ably officered. General 
Howe and General Clinton were aided in the command by Lord 
Cornwallis, Lord Percy, General von Heister, and other impor- 
tant officers. A large number of the troops under their com- 
,mand were hired soldiers. Since many 
of these came from that part of Ger- 
many called Hesse-Cassel, the general 
name of Hessians was given to them all. 
283. The Two Armies confront Each 
Other. — The British army had landed 
near the southwest corner of Long 
Island, in the rear of 
the present city of 
Brooklyn. They num- 
bered thirty thousand 
strong. Washington, 
with a force of from 




seven thousand to eight thousand, had taken an advantageous posi- 
tion on the North River, in New York, and had prepared, by sinking 
vessels in the channel, and by ranging his cannon at Forts Washing- 
ton and Lee for a cross-fire, to dispute the passage of the British 
vessels up the river. Meanwhile General Greene, with a force of 



1776] 



LOSS OF NEW YORK CITY. 



153 



about eight thousand men, had fortified the hills in Brooklyn, to 
prevent their capture by the British. 

284. The Battle of Long Island. — Before the battle began, General 
Greene was taken sick, and the command fell upon General Sullivan. 
The battle was fought on the 27th of August, 1776. The American 
forces marched directly against the British, and for a time suc- 
ceeded in resisting the attack of the superior force. Through 
neglect or a failure to appreciate the position, the American line 
lay especially open to an attack upon 

its left flank. The main army of the 
British, by a manoeuvre to their right, 
surrounded the American left, and 
placed them all in imminent danger of 
capture. The Americans succeeded in 
falling back to their defences. General 
Sullivan was captured, and the Ameri- 
can loss, in killed, wounded, and pris- 
oners, was about a thousand. 

The Americans retreated to Fort Put- 
nam. Had General Howe at once at- 
tacked that fort, he would have cut off 
their retreat, and captured the whole 
force. He waited, however, for his fleet 
to intercept them, and this gave General Washington an opportu- 
nity to withdraw the force from Brooklyn. The army retreated to 
New York on the night of the 29th. 

285. Operations about New York. — On the 14th of September, the 
British fleet occupied the East River, and the American army evac- 
uated New York City. Washington retired to Harlem Heights, 
which he promptly fortified. On the 1 6th, General Howe was 
repulsed in an attack upon the American forces, but he succeeded 
later in passing Washington's left. Washington at once extended 
his line to White Plains, where he took up a strong position. An 
unsuccessful attempt was made upon the American lines, October 
28th. The loss of each in this battle was about one hundred and 
fifty. Howe waited for reinforcements, and Washington withdrew 
to North Castle Heights, which he strongly fortified. The British 
general did not attack the Americans, but retired to New York City. 



Nathan Hale. — While Washing- 
ton was in doubt as to the future move- 
ments of General Howe, he intrusted 
to Captain Nathan Hale the delicate 
duty of visiting Long Island to obtain 
the desired information. Hale was ar- 
rested, summarily tried, and executed 
as a spy by the British on the 22d day 
of September, 1776. He was a grad- 
uate of Yale College, and a man of 
fine promise. He was not permitted 
to write even to his mother; and the 
contrast between the brutal treatment 
which he received and the courtesies 
afterwards extended to Andre, under 
similar conditions, only endeared his 
memory to the American people. He 
died "regretting that he had but one 
life to give to his country." 



154 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [l776 

286. Washington crosses the Hudson. — Washington feared that 
the British would enter New Jersey, and push forward to Phila- 
delphia. Therefore he crossed the Hudson, and fixed his head- 
quarters at Fort Lee. Howe decided to reduce Fort Washington 
before entering New Jersey, as it was a permanent menace both to the 

river and the city. He made the at- 
tack on the 1 6th of November, and 
after a fierce struggle, in which the 
British lost nearly five hundred men, 
the Americans were obliged to sur- 
render. The number of prisoners, in- 
cluding officers, was about twenty-five 
hundred men. 

287. Dark Days. — This was a ter- 
rible loss to the patriots. The British 



The First American Treason. — 

Carrington gives a foot-note, in his 
latest edition of " Battles of the Ameri- 
can Revolution," showing that William 
Almont, adjutant of McGaw's regi- 
me;it, deserted to Howe, and placed in 
his hands detailed plans of Fort Wash- 
ington, especially of the steep and 
weakly guarded ascent near the river, 
where the determining assault was 
made, in the rear of the active lines of 
defence. 



vessels could now pass safely up and down the North River. Wash- 
ingto-n withdrew his forces to Newark. These were dark days for 
the American cause. The army was discouraged, and desertions 
were frequent. Philadelphia was in danger, and the Congress 
adjourned to Baltimore. Washington himself considered the cause 
to be in a most critical condition. 



CHAPTER XLII. 

DEFENCE OF NEW JERSEY. 

288. Washington a Skilful General. — Washington had already 
shown real military genius. His retreat from Long Island, his 
manoeuvrings on Manhattan Island, his withdrawal across the 
Hudson, were movements performed under the most unfavorable 
circumstances, with a small army of raw recruits, undrilled, undis- 
ciplined, mostly enlisted for short terms of service, and opposed by 
a vastly superior force of British regulars and Hessian mercenaries, 
commanded by experienced officers of the foremost nation in the 
world ; yet he saved his army, and soon turned the tide of defeat 
into glorious victory. 



1776] 



DEFENCE OF NKW JERSEY. 



155 



289. Discouragements thicken. —While the patriots waited for the 
turn of affairs, the public heart was nearly discouraged. Washington 
was obliged to say, " I think the game is pretty nearly up, unless 
reinforcements arrive, or regiments re-enlist." Samuel Adams, with 
tears rolling down his cheeks, exclaimed, "O my God, imistwQ give 
it up?" The British army followed Washington from Newark to 
New Brunswick, and from New Brunswick to Trenton. At Trenton, 
the Americans crossed the Delaware. 

290. Lee captured. — Washington had left General Lee in com- 
mand at North Castle. He sent repeated orders to Lee to join him 
with all possible haste. Lee hesitated, 
and at last moved his force into New 
Jersey. Even then he intended to act 
independently of Washington. There, 
one night, when he was quartered away 
from his troops, he was taken prisoner 
by the British cavalry. This was a 
great misfortune to the Americans, who 
had a high regard for Lee's military 
ability. General Sullivan took com- 
mand of Lee's forces, and promptly 
joined Washington's army. 

291. The Situation. — Meantime, many 
Pennsylvania recruits joined the Ameri- 
can force, so that it numbered six thou- 
sand or seven thousand men. The 
patriots had been driven from Canada, 
been forced to give up Crown Point, 
and had lost the control of Lake Cham- 
plain. Sir Peter Parker, with a British 
squadron, had taken possession of Newport, which was the second 
town in New England. The little provincial fleet that was stationed 
in Narragansett Bay under Commodore Hopkins was forced to take 
shelter in Providence River. 

292. "Washington captures Trenton. — Under these distressing cir- 
cumstances, Washington resolved to strike a sudden blow, and, if 
possible, force a victory from the enemy. As early as December 
14th, Washington had watched for an opportunity " to face about. 



A Bold Push. — General Lee re- 
mained a prisoner until he was ex- 
changed for General Prescott. The 
capture of General Prescott was made 
on the night of July 9th, 1777. He was 
in command of the British force, sta- 
tioned at Newport, and had his head- 
quarters at a farmhouse four miles 
from the town, and a mile from any 
of his troops. Colonel William Bar- 
ton, of the Rhode Island Militia, em- 
barked with a party of forty volunteers, 
and rowed across Narragansett Bay. 
The party stole silently across the 
fields, surrounded Prescott's house, 
buret open the doors, and took the 
general and Lieutenant Barrington out 
of their beds. They hurried them to 
the water's edge, succeeded in rowing 
past the stern of the British guard- 
ship, returned to Warwick, and the 
next morning forwarded the prisoners 
to Providence. While in the boat, 
General Prescott remarked to Colonel 
Barton, " You have made a bold push 
to-night, colonel." " We have done 
what we could, general," was the reply. 



156 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [l776-i777 

and meet the enemy." Lee's disobedience had postponed offensive 
action. Enlistments were soon to expire, and Washington's hope 
was that regiments would enlist, if only for a short time. The British 
were stationed at New Brunswick, Princeton, Trenton, and other 
places in New Jersey, and felt themselves secure from attack. The 
Hessian troops were distributed along the Delaware as far as Bur- 
lington, with a small force at Trenton. Washington's plan was that 
the Delaware should be crossed simultaneously at three points, but 
the floating ice and other obstacles prevented the combined move- 
ment. Washington, with the left wing of twenty-four hundred men, 
crossed on Christmas night. The advance was made in two divi- 
sions, one taking the lower road to Trenton, and the other the 
upper or Pennington road. Both divisions met the enemy at eight 
o'clock, December 26tli, 1776. The Hessian troops, concluding that 
they were surrounded, and must inevitably be cut to pieces, surren- 
dered, after preliminary skirmishing, in which their loss was about 
thirty killed and wounded; while the Americans lost but two men, 
besides two or three frozen to death. The Americans took one 
thousand prisoners, with arms and ammunition. The following 
evening, Washington recrossed the Delaware with his prisoners, 
their artillery, and colors. 

293. The British alarmed. — This battle had a very depressing 
influence upon the British army, but, as might be expected, pro- 
duced great joy throughout the American States. The several 
detachments of the British, stationed at different points in New 
Jersey, were now thoroughly alarmed. They left Mt. Holly, 
Bordentown, and Burlington. The troops at New Brunswick 
marched to Princeton. After two or three days' rest, Washington 
again crossed the Delaware, and took up his position at Trenton. 
Cornwallis, who had gone to New York with the intention of 
embarking for England, hastily returned, and with a large force, 
on the 2d of January, 1777, confronted Washington. 

294. The Battle of Princeton. — Washington was now cut off from 
retreat across the Delaware, and separated from the army of Corn- 
wallis only by a small river. Having carefully fortified his front and 
guarded the bridges by earthworks and artillery, as if to accept 
battle on the morrow, he kept campfires burning during the night. 
At midnight, he left the Delaware in his rear, and early the next 



1777] DEFENCE OF NEW JERSEY. 1 57 

morning, January 3d, 1777, attacked Cornwallis's base of supplies 
at Princeton. The sound of his guns was the first warning to Corn- 
wallis that he had been outgeneralled, and he hastened in that direc- 
tion. Washington had gained another brilh'ant victory. This 
result was almost altogether due to the ability and intrepidity of 
Washington himself When the battle was begun, the British, under 
Colonel Mawhood, by an impetuous onset, threw the Americans 
into confusion, so that officers and men seemed seized with a panic, 
which spread fast and indicated a speedy defeat. Just then Wash- 
ington came up. He saw that the tide must instantly be turned, or 
his army would be lost. He called upon the troops to rally, and 
rode boldly forward himself, facing the enemy, to within thirty 
yards of their line, and stood exposed to their fire. The British 
volley was immediately returned by the Americans, with their gen- 
eral sitting upon his horse between the two bodies, and thus so 
enveloped in the smoke as not to be seen by either party. When 
the smoke lifted, both sides expected to see him fallen, but he was 
unhurt. Not a bullet had touched him. 

295. The Victory. — The sight of their commander under such cir- 
cumstances, and the thought of his intrepid bravery, so inspired the 
American troops that they rushed forward and fought with singular 
valor, defeated the enemy, and won a great battle. The British loss 
in this engagement, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, was between 
three hundred and four hundred. The Americans lost one hundred, 
among them General Mercer who was bayoneted and died of his 
wounds. Washington now marched on to Morristown, from which 
place, as headquarters, he sent out several expeditions, and finally 
recovered the greater part of the State. The American troops 
spent the winter at Morristown. New forces were raised in the 
several States, and by early spring the army was in good fighting 
condition. 



158 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1777 



CHAPTER XLIII. 

BRANDYWINE AND GERMANTOWN. 

296. Howe outgeneralled. — General Howe, during the summer of 
1777, kept his army in the vicinity of New York manoeuvring to 
gain some advantage of position. Finding, however, Washington 
so wary and alert as to give him no opportunity, he finally decided 
to take the field, and force the Americans to a general engagement. 
At first he endeavored to march to Philadelphia. Washington's 



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force was too small to meet him in open fight, but he managed so 
to worry him and delay his movements that the British general 
finally returned to New York. 

297. Howe goes South. — He then embarked eighteen thousand 
men on British vessels, under command of his brother, Lord Howe, 



1777] 



BRANDYWINE AND GERMANTOWN, 



159 



and set sail. His first effort was to go up the Delaware, but, finding 
it obstructed and fortified, he returned and sailed around through 
Chesapeake Bay. He landed his men at Elkton, near the head of 
the bay, and marched toward Philadelphia. Washington hurried 
south to meet him, having determined to risk a battle for the 
defence of Philadelphia. Washington had at this time under his 
command an army of about eleven thousand men ready for duty. 

298. The Battle of Brandywine. — He took up a position on the 
east side of Brandywine River, with the intention of disputing the 
passage of the British across the river. 
The advance column of the British was 
in command of Knyphausen, a Hessian 
general. He attacked the American 
forces at Chadd's Ford, directly in their 
front. While the battle was progressing 
at this place, Howe, with a large force, 
having pushed farther up the river, 
crossed his troops at Jeffrey's Ford, 
turned the flank of the American army, 
and struck its rear. The patriots were 
routed, Lafayette was wounded, and 
Washington was forced to retreat to 
Philadelphia. He and his generals had 
chosen a good position, and had well 
and skilfully resisted the advance of the 
largely superior force of the British. 

299. The British occupy Philadelphia. — 
The night after the battle the American 
forces withdrew to Chester, and the day 
following to Philadelphia. During the 
next two weeks occurred a series of 
manoeuvres alike creditable to the mili- 
tary genius of both sides. No general battle, however, took place. 
On the 26th of September, Lord Cornwallis entered Philadelphia 
with a detachment of his army. The remainder of his forces en- 
camped at Germantown, while Washington with his army went to 
the northward, farther up the Schuylkill. The force of the Ameri- 
cans was too small in comDarison with the British army to warrant 



General Lafayette, the distin- 
guished soldier and statesman, was born 
at Chavagnac, France, in 1757. He died 
in Paris in i S3 4 at the age of seventy- 
seven years. He was of a race of states- 
men and soldiers. He came to this 
country in his own vessel, in company 
with Baron de Kalb, having ten other 
vessels, in 1777, and offered his ser- 
vices to Washington as a volunteer aid, 
being then but nineteen years of age. 
He was appointed major-general, and 
became a member of the military fam- 
ily of Washington. He was wounded 
at the battle of Brandywine while ral- 
Ij'ing the retreating Americans. He 
was engaged in various battles during 
the Revolution, and it was mainly 
through his efforts that the army of 
Rochambeau was sent to America in 
1780. He 'assisted materially in cut- 
ting off the retreat of the British from 
Yorktown, and was present at the sur- 
render of Cornwallis. For his services 
he was publicly thanked by Washington 
on the day after the surrender. He 
visited America in 17S4, and was every- 
where received with great affection and 
respect. He again visited us, by invi- 
tation of Congress in 1824, and his 
progress through the country was like 
a continuous triumphal procession. 



l6o FORMATION OF THE NATION. [l777 

committing the fate of America to the uncertain issue of a general 
engagement. 

300. The Battle of Germantown. — Reinforcements were received 
from Peekskill, and from Maryland. Cornwallis was at Philadel- 
phia, and Howe in command at Germantown. Washington now 
determined to give battle. On the 4th of October the Americans 
attacked the British at Germantown. At first the Americans were 
successful; but Colonel Musgrave, with six companies of the fortieth 
regiment, occupied a large stone house near the head of the village, 
from which he poured such a terrible fire of musketry upon the 
Americans that they could advance no further. :It was found im- 
possible to dislodge the British from this stronghold, and although 
General Greene had routed the British right wing, yet the delay 
at the stone house was such that his success could not be followed 
up, and the issue appeared for some time doubtful. 

301. A British Victory. — A dense fog set in. Prisoners were 
taken and retaken ; opposing forces became confused with each 
other. Additional British troops came up, and the Americans re- 
tired. Thus a victory, of which in the commencement of the 
action they had felt assured, failed of realization. The Americans 
lost in killed about one hundred, wounded five hundred, and pris- 
oners four hundred. The British loss was over five hundred killed 
and wounded. 



CHAPTER XLIV. 

BURGOYNE'S EXPEDITION. 

302. A New Scheme. — The British ministers decided to attempt to 
cutoff the Eastern* States from the rest of the country. Burgoyne 
had gone to England and laid before the ministers his plan for an 
expedition from Canada to Lake Champlain, and down the Hudson. 
If the country along the Hudson and the lake could be held by Britr 
ish troops, the forces of the Americans would be so divided that one 
part could be captured and then the other. Burgoyne arrived at 
Quebec in May, and soon started on his expedition. He had nearly 
eight thousand men. One-half of his whole force were German 



1777] 



BURGOYNES EXPEDITION. 



i6i 



mercenaries. He had in addition more than six hundred Canadians 
attached to the army, who were to scour the woods on the frontiers, 
and occupy intermediate posts. His army was in the best condition, 
and the troops in the highest spirits, well disciplined and healthy. 
General Schuyler had taken possession of Fort TIconderoga, but 
the British army so far outnumbered him 



that he was obliged to abandon it, and he 



moved his force to Hubbardton. An en- 
gagement took place here, July 6, from 
which the Americans were compelled to 
retreat with the loss of over three hundred 
and fifty killed, wounded, and prisoners, 
while the British loss was over two hundred. 

303. Bennington. — In August, Burgoyne 
sent Colonel Baum with about one thou- 
sand men to Bennington to seize some 
stores at that place. On the i6th of August, 
the British force met a body of Vermont 
and New Hampshire militia, under com- 
mand of Colonel Stark. The engagement 
was a fierce one ; the Americans fought 
with intrepid bravery. The British were 
totally defeated, and Colonel Baum was 
mortally wounded. The loss to the Ameri- 
cans was less than one hundred, while the 
British loss in killed, wounded, and prison- 
ers was about eight hundred. The Ameri- 
cans captured much war material. The 
gallant conduct of Stark was promptly 
recognized by his promotion to the rank of 
general. 

304. St. Leger up the Mohawk Valley. — 
St. Leger had been sent by Burgoyne to the 
Mohawk Valley with seven hundred rangers, with orders to call out 
the Indians and the Tories, overrun the country, and afterwards 
join Burgoyne at Albany. St. Leger on this expedition increased 
his force by about one thousand Tories and Indians. He be- 
sieged Fort Schuyler, which was situated where the present city 



HUDSON RIVER 

AND 

LAKECHAMPLAIN 




/ i Tarrytdwn?! 

' Fort Lee it^/tOf^ 

^shington 



l62 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1777 



of Rome is. General Schuyler sent General Arnold to relieve 
Fort Schuyler. 

305. Arnold's Stratagem. — Arnold succeeded in raising the siege 
by an adroit stratagem. A half-witted Tory boy was held as 
prisoner; Arnold promised him his freedom on condition that he 
should make the British believe that a large body of Ameri- 
cans was close at hand, ready to capture the entire British force. 
The boy performed his part with great success. He rushed into 

^ their camp, excited and 
breathless, showed his 
coat full of bullet-holes, 
told them that the great 
American army was 
right upon them, and 
created such a panic, 
especially among the 
Tories and Indians, that 
they were soon in full 
flight. 

306. Burgoyne's Condi- 
tion Critical. — Burgoyne 
and his army were now 
in a critical situation. 
For a long time they had 
been short of supplies. 
The force which he had 
sent to Bennington, in 
the hope of bringing 
back large stores, had 
been utterly defeated. 
The expedition of St. 
Leger to the Mohawk Valley had been routed, and returned empty- 
handed. The great confidence which he had placed in Indian 
soldiers had proved only a disappointment. His employment of 
Indian allies was as unpopular in England as it was unjustifiable 
and barbarous in itself Edmund Burke pronounced them "not fit 
allies for the king in a war with his people." These Indians were 
now rapidly leaving Burgoyne. It was a perilous moment for the 




General Burgoyne. 



1777] burgoyne's expedition. 163 

British army; to advance or to retreat was alike dangerous. Bur- 
goyne, however, determined to reach Albany if possible. 

307. Stillwater, or Freeman's Farm. — He therefore moved his 
army across the Hudson, and, September 19th, met the Americans 
at Freeman's Farm below Saratoga. An obstinate battle ensued. 
The contest continued until darkness closed in upon the scene. 
In the afternoon there was one continual blaze of fire for three 
hours without intermission. Again and again one army drove 
back the other, and then was driven back in turn. Three British 
regiments were under close fire for nearly four hours. Several 
cannon were taken and retaken repeatedly. Few battles have 
shown more obstinacy in attack or defence. The British lost in 
this action more than five hundred in killed, wounded, and pris- 
oners. The total loss of the Americans was three hundred and 
twenty-one. 

308. Two Weeks' watching. — For two weeks afterwards the two 
armies occupied their respective camps, engaged in fortifying and 
watching for a favorable opportunity to renew the attack. General 
Arnold was removed from his command. Burgoyne's condition 
was desperate. His provisions were almost exhausted, and he 
must either fight or fly. 

309. Bemis Heights. — October 7th Burgoyne again marched out 
to attack the Americans. During the conflict Arnold, though not in 
command, rushed into the thickest of the fight. Seeing this. Gates 
ordered him to be recalled, but he was beyond reach. Although 
he had no authority to command, he led his former troops in a 
desperate charge upon the British line. Constantly in the midst 
of British bullets flying around his head, he delivered his orders 
in person, impetuously urged on his men, and drove the British to 
their camp. The frightened Hessians fled. Arnold was wounded 
and carried from the field, but he had gained for the cause a great 
victory. The Americans took more than two hundred prisoners, 
captured nine pieces of artillery, the entire equipment of a German 
brigade, and a large supply of ammunition. The British lost many 
officers, including General Frazer, Sir James Clark, Burgoyne's 
aide-de-camp, and others. 

310. Burgoyne must surrender. — Burgoyne now had no hope of 
escape. His Indians and Tories were constantly deserting; his 



i64 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1777 

provisions were gone. On the nth he had but three thousand, 
four hundred men for duty, and rations for only three days. The 
American batteries commanded the whole British camp. On the 
13th he called a council of war. There was no spot of ground in 
his entire camp where this council could deliberate without being 
exposed to cannon or rifle shot. While it was in session an eighteen- 
pound ball crossed the table. Burgoyne immediately decided to 
capitulate. Terms were proposed and refused. General Gates, 
fearing that if the surrender were longer deferred, Clinton might 
reinforce Burgoyne, sent a flag of truce to the British general 
on the morning of October 17th, 1777, requiring the general to 
sign the terms of surrender which he had last proposed, within 
ten minutes, or hostilities would be reopened. 

311. The Surrender. — The papers were signed within that time, 
and the Americans marched into the British lines to the tune of 

" Yankee Doodle." Burgoyne surren- 



The Stars and Stripes. — The 

Congress had lately adopted the "stars 
and stripes" as the national banner. 
The first flag with the stars and stripes 
was made by Mrs. Betsey Ross, of 
Philadelphia, from a pencil sketch 
drawn by General Washington himself, 
early in tha year 1777. The new flag 
was used on the occasion of marching 
off the captured army. General Gates 
received the credit for the victory, but 
Benedict Arnold is justly entitled to 
great praise for his bravery and skill 
in the engagement. 



dered an army of five thousand, seven 
hundred and sixty-three men. If we 
add to this number the prisoners pre- 
viously taken, and the loss of the 
enemy at Bennington, the total loss 
will reach about one-third of the entire 
British force in America. Burgoyne's 
army was quartered for a time at Cam- 
bridge and Rutland, but afterwards 
marched to Charlotte, Virginia, where 
many permanently settled when exchanged. The palisade which 
enclosed them was an object of interest for many years after 
the war. 

312. "Amon^ the Fifteen Great Battles." — This battle has some- 
times been reckoned as among the fifteen decisive battles that, 
within twenty centuries, have had a permanent bearing upon the 
world's history. The defeat of Burgoyne and his army had an 
important influence upon the public sentiment of both England 
and America. The expedition had been planned wisely and skil- 
fully. Its success would have gone far toward subduing the 
rebellious colonies. Its utter failure created a strong reaction in 
England in favor of the Americans. As, on the one hand, its 



1777] 



BURGOYNE S EXPEDITION. 



165 



success would have had a very disheartening effect upon the 
patriots, so, on the other, its entire failure brought hope and cour- 
age to many a despondent American. 

313. Negotiation with France. — The capture of Burgoyne greatly 
increased our chances of ultimate success in the eyes of France. 
In 1763 England had robbed France of Canada (IT 160). For this 
France continued to cherish feelings of revenge against England. 
As early as 1776 the 
Continental Congress 
had sought an alliance 
with France. She was 
not then ready to act 
openly, but secretly fur- 
nished us arms and sup- 
plies. Franklin had 
been sent over to Paris 
as our minister to the 
French government. 
Louis XVI. was upon 
the throne. When the 
news of Burgoyne's sur- 
render reached him, he 
hesitated no longer. 

314. France acknowl- 
edges our Independence. — 
On the 6th of February, 
1778, the government of 
France acknowledged 
the independence of the 
United States, and en- 
tered into a treaty of alliance with the new republic. This was the 
first acknowledgment of our independence by any European power, 
and the first treaty of alliance. It was signed by Benjamin Franklin, 
Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee. It was ratified by Congress on the 
4th of May following. 

315. Its Effects. — At this, America was elated; England was 
dejected. The British government at once sent commissioners to 
America for the purpose of effecting a reconciliation on any terms 




Benjamin Franklin. 
(After the eni^raving by Baron Desnoyers, Paris.) 



1 66 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [l777 

possible, if the revolted colonies would again acknowledge their 
allegiance to the British crown. But our people now would be 
satisfied with nothing short of absolute independence. Congress 
therefore rejected the proposal. 

316. Arrival of a French Fleet. — Two months after France had 
acknowledged our independence, she sent over a fleet, under com- 
mand of Count D'Estaing, to aid America. This squadron con- 
sisted of twelve ships of the line and four frigates of superior size, 
having on board four thousand troops. Monsieur Conrad A. Girard, 
the first French ambassador to the United States, came over at this 
Mme. D'Estaing arrived in Delaware Bay in July, with the inten- 
tion of capturing the entire British fleet. The British commander, 
Lord Howe, had already sailed away. Had the French fleet 
arrived in season, the destruction or capture of the entire British 
squadron would probably have taken place. As the British fleet 
had escaped, D'Estaing sailed to New York; but as his heavy 
ships could not cross the bar he proceeded thence to Newport, 
Rhode Island. 



CHAPTER XLV. 

VALLEY FORGE AND MONMOUTH. 

317. The British in Luxury. — During the autumn, several minor 
engagements occurred between the two armies in the vicinity of 
Philadelphia. The winter of 1777-78 was passed by the British 
army in the city. General Howe and his officers led a luxurious 
life; they abandoned themselves to a continuous series of balls, 
dances, and the social entertainments incident to life in a great 
city. 

318. Valley Forge. — The condition of the American army pre- 
sented a complete contrast to all this. A little more than twenty 
miles northwest of Philadelphia, on the right bank of the Schuyl- 
kill, was a small village of picturesque beauty, called Valley Forge, 
now of little consequence except from its historical associations. 
On the 19th of December, 1777, Washington established his little 
army at this place for winter-quarters. The location was bleak 



1778] 



VALLEY FORGE AND MONMOUTH. 



167 



Washington at Prayer. — It is 
related that one day "Friend Potts" 
was on his way up the creek when 
he heard the voice of prayer. Fol- 
lowing the direction of the sound, he 
soon discovered Washington upon his 
knees, his cheek wet with tears, pour- 
ing out his soul to God. When the 
good farmer arrived at his home, he 
said to his wife, with much emotion, 
"George Washington will succeed! 
George Washington will succeed 1 The 
Americans will secure their indepen- 
dence ! " " What makes thee think 
so, Isaac?" inquired his wife. " I 
have heard him pray, Hannah, out in 
the woods, to-daj', and the Lord will 
surely hear his prayer. He will, Han- 
nah; thee may rest assured he will." 



and desolate. Along the line of hills the patriots threw up breast- 
works, and behind them, with fence-rails and earth, erected their 
simple huts. One small room on the ground-floor of a stone 
house, owned and occupied by Isaac 
Potts, a plain farmer, served both for 
headquarters and lodgings for General 
Washington, the commander-in-chief. 

319. The Americans in Starvation. — 
Here behind the breastworks and with- 
in the several redoubts were huddled 
together in scant quarters, largely un- 
protected from the inclement weather 
and the cold of the season, the soldiers 
of the American army. Their sup- 
plies came principally from Chester and 
Montgomery counties. Their provisions 
were scant; their clothing was poor in 
quality and insufficient in quantity. 
Sometimes the soldiers could be tracked by the blood from their 
naked feet, which crimsoned the white snow. At one time Wash- 
ington wrote to Congress that he had " no less than two thousand, 
eight hundred and ninety-eight men now in camp unfit for duty, 
because they are barefoot and otherwise naked," and that for "seven 
days past there had been little else than a famine in the camp." 

320. Conway Cabal. — As if his cup were not yet full, an intrigue 
was on foot, which nearly succeeded, designed to supersede Wash- 
ington and place Gates in command. The intrigue received no 
countenance from the army. The soldiers to a man were loyal to 
Washington. General Conway, an intimate friend of Gates and 
inspector-general of the army, who was largely instrumental in in- 
stituting the cabal, dared not show himself to the army, and finally 
the attack recoiled on the heads of its instigators. Ah ! could Wash- 
ington have only foreseen with what enthusiasm the people of the 
whole country would flock to honor him in the first year of his 
presidency, twelve years later, when he made a journey which was 
one long series of ovations, it certainly would have encouraged his 
heart and nerved his hand for his daily duties; but that of course 
was denied him. 



1 68 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1778 



321. Congress adopts Measures of Relief. — This was the gloomiest 
period of the war. During January a committee from Congress 
visited Washington, and obtained some idea of the condition and 
necessities of his army. On their return they recommended the 
adoption of the suggestions which Washington had made to them, 
for the thorough reorganization of the army in respect to all mat- 
ters of enlistment and supply. Later 
Baron Steuben received the appoint- 
ment of major-general, and entered 
upon the work of organizing, training, 
and disciplining the army. Before 
spring opened, courage had returned 
to both officers and men. In May 
came the inspiring news of the alliance 
with France. 

322. Clinton succeeds Howe. — In May 
General Howe returned to England, 
being replaced by General Clinton. 
Washington realized that the French 
alliance would compel the British to 
concentrate at New York. In order to 
hasten this movement and to free the 
neighborhood of Philadelphia from 
the ravages and depredations which 
the British were inflicting, Washington 
decided to press closely on the enemy. 
Lafayette was given his first command, 
and, with twenty-one hundred picked 
troops and five pieces of artillery, he 
successfully resisted Clinton's night 
attack with five thousand men. Wash- 
ington regarded this movement as one of the best managed in 
the war. 

323. The Battle of Monmouth. — Clinton evacuated Philadelphia, 
June 1 8th, 1778. The American army was in readiness to follow the 
retreating enemy. The command would naturally fall upon General 
Lee, but he protested against the pursuit of Clinton, and declined to 
engage in the movement. When Lafayette accepted and had set 



News of the Alliance. — " On the 

7th of May, 1778, at nine o'clock a.m., 
the American army was on parade. 
Drums beat and cannon were fired, as 
if for some victory. It was a day of 
jubilee, a rare occurrence for the times 
and place. The brigades were steady, 
but not brilliant in their formation. 
Uniforms were scarce. Many feet were 
bare. Many had no coats. Some 
wore coats made of the remnants of 
their winter blankets. The pomp and 
circumstance of war was wanting. 
There was no review by general of- 
ficers, with a well - apjDointed staff. 
Few matrons and few maidens looked 
on. There stood before each brigade 
its chaplain. God's ambassador was 
made the voice to explain this occasion 
of their expenditure of greatly needed 
powder. The Treaty of Alliance was 
read, and in solemn silence the Amer- 
ican army at Valley Forge united in 
thanksgiving to Almighty God that he 
had given them one /riend on earth. 
One theme was universal, and it flut- 
ters yet in the breasts of millions, 
' Praise God from whom all blessings 
flow.' Huzzas for the king of France, 
for Washington, and the Republic, with 
caps tossed high in air, and a rattling 
fire through the whole line, terminated 
the humble pageant." 

(From Carrington's " Battles of the 
American Revolution.") 



1778] 



VALLEY FORGE AND MONMOUTH. 



169 



out on the march, Lee begged him *' for his honor's sake" to yield 
to him the command. Lafayette courteously granted the request, 
on the distinct condition that Lee should faithfully carry out the 
orders and attack Clinton. The pursuit continued, and on June 28th, 
1778, the enemy were overtaken at Monmouth Court House, now 
Freehold, where a battle took place. 

324. Lee disobeys. — Clinton labored under the disadvantage of a 
heavy baggage train, and was anxious only to reach New York. 
He was being hard pressed 

by the American forces, 
when Lee ordered a general 
retreat. This encouraged 
the British to take the of- 
fensive, and the arrival of 
Washington alone saved the 
day. Rising in his stirrups 
and towering over the cring- 
ing Lee, he sternly de- 
manded the reason for the 
retreat. As at Princeton, 
his presence in extremest 
peril turned the tide of bat- 
tle. By his personal bear- 
ing, manner, and tone of 
voice, he expressed that sub- 
lime wrath which followed 
his conviction that the army 
and the country were wil- 
fully imperilled by the dis- 
obedience of Charles Lee. 

325. Washington saves the Day. — By his own celerity of move- 
ment, by intelligent orders, and by a seizure of wise defensive posi- 
tions, Washington restored the confidence of his troops, and before 
nightfall had occupied a strong advance line. Shortly after mid- 
night, Clinton withdrew his forces, hastened to Sandy Hook, and 
thence to New York. Lee was tried and found guilty of " disobedi- 
ence of orders in not attacking the enemy," " misbehavior before 
the enemy," and disrespect to the commander-in-chief. He was 




Monument at Freehold, N. J., commemorating the Battle 
of Monmouth 



170 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1778 



suspended for twelve months, but he never returned to the army. 
The battle of Monmouth was the last important conflict fought in 
the Northern States. A beautiful monument has recently been 
erected to commemorate this notable engagement. It stands on 
the public square, — or triangle, rather, — in the town of Freehold, 
not far from the Monmouth Court House. During the summer and 
autumn terrible massacres were committed by the Indians, especially 
at Wyoming, Pennsylvania, and Cherry Valley, New York. Wash- 
ington took up his position at White 
Plains again, where he remained until he 
went into winter-quarters in New Jersey. 

326. Colonel Clark at the Northwest.— 
In the summer of 1778, Colonel George 
Rogers Clark conducted an expedition 
through the Western territory against 
the French settlements which had been 
planted by the Canadians in the Illinois 
country. He marched his force more 
than twelve hundred miles through an 
uncultivated and uninhabited wilder- 
ness. He surprised the town of Kas- 
kaskia in the night, and captured it. 
Colonel Clark secured the written in- 
structions which Rocheblave, the gov- 
ernor, had received from Canada for 
setting on the Indians, and paying them 
great rewards for the scalps of the 
Americans. 

327. Clark captured Vincennes. — Gov- 
ernor Hamilton of Detroit had placed 



General George Rogers Clark 
was a conspicuous character west of 
the Alleghanies, throughout the entire 
period of the Revokition, and later. 
His several expeditions against the 
French and the Indians of the North- 
west probably saved that country to 
the United States. In like manner we 
secured the country south of the Oh o, 
including the Mississippi territory, by 
the ability, bravery, and patriotism of 
John Sevier, James Robertson, and 
others. General Clark was born in 
Albemarle County, Virginia, in 1752. 
The expedition against Kaskaskia and 
Vincennes, when he was twenty-five 
years old, was intrusted to him by 
Patrick Henry, Governor of Virginia. 
The sufferings of officers and men in 
this expedition across the wilderness of 
Illinois, often over the drowned lands, 
including every privation from fatigue, 
wet, cold, and hunger, are almost with- 
out parallel in the history of military 
expeditions in this country. His mil- 
itary ability, power of endurance, brav- 
ery, and patriotism, were of tlie highest 
order. His services to his country 
were great, but he died near Lou'svi'.le, 
Kentucky, in his sixty-sixth year, in 
obscurity and poverty. 



himself at the head of seven hundred Indians, with the inten- 
tion of sweeping the Ohio and Kentucky country, and destroying 
all American settlements. Colonel Clark, hearing that Hamilton 
had captured Vincennes and fortified it, determined to attack him. 
He made a hasty march with only one hundred and thirty men, 
being all he could raise. He attacked Hamilton February 19th, 
1779, captured the town, and the next day received the surrender 
of the fort. On his return. Colonel Clark transmitted to the Vir-, 



I77B-1779] STONY POINT AND PAUL JONES. I7I 

ginia council letters and papers relating to Governor Hamilton. 
Hamilton and others were tried and convicted of inciting the Indians 
to unaccustomed cruelties, of sending detachments of them against 
the frontiers, and of giving standing rewards for scalps. They were 
sentenced to be put in irons and confined in the dungeons of the 
public jail. "The expedition," wrote Jefferson, "will have an 
important bearing ultimately in establishing our northwestern 
boundary." 



CHAPTER XLVI. 

STONY POINT AND PAUL JONES. 

328. At Newport. — Near the close of July, 1778, an attack w^as 
planned upon the British army at Newport. General Sullivan was 
in command of the land forces, aided by Generals Greene and 
Lafayette, with ten thousand troops. An attack against the British 
fleet was made by Count D'Estaing. While the siege was in pro- 
gress, an additional British fleet approached, and D'Estaing sailed 
out to give them battle. A severe storm arose, which separated the 
French vessels from the British fleet, and D'Estaing felt obliged to 
put into Boston for repairs. Sullivan with his forces retired to the 
northward. There, upon the highlands of Portsmouth, he was 
attacked by the British, but he repulsed them. The French fleet, 
after refitting at Boston, sailed for the West Indies. The British 
fleet soon followed to protect their possessions in those islands. 

329. Raids. — In May, 1779, the British conducted marauding 
expeditions in various quarters. They made raids into Virginia, 
destroying much property, both public and private, in Norfolk, 
Portsmouth, and the surrounding country. General Clinton in per- 
son led an expedition up the Hudson. He occupied and garrisoned 
Stony Point and Verplanck's Point, and returned to New York. In 
July General Tryon raided through Connecticut, and burned East 
Haven, Fairfield, and Norwalk, plundering and ravaging the country 
bordering on the sound. 

330. Wayne captures Stony Point. — On the morning of the i6th 
of July, the Americans performed one of the most gallant and sue- 



172 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1779-1780 



cessful operations of the whole war. Washington could not regard 
with indifference the British occupation of any points upon the 
Hudson. He therefore sent General Anthony Wayne to capture 
Stony Point. This exploit was a military expedition of character- 
istic boldness and distinguished success. The plan was made by 
Washington, and its details were faithfully carried out by General 
Wayne. In the assault upon the works the troops placed their sole 
dependence on the bayonet, and the watchword which every man 
shouted was, *' The fort is ours." Wayne led one of the columns in 

person, and was wounded in the head, 
but still went forward. Two columns 
gained the centre of the works at nearly 
the same moment. The number of 
killed and wounded was small on either 
side, but the whole British force of 
nearly six hundred was made prisoners. 
In this action the American loss was 
only fifteen killed and eighty-three 
wounded. The stores captured were 
valued at more than one hundred and 
fifty thousand dollars. These were 
divided among the troops. The Amer- 
icans destroyed the works and returned 
to their camp. 

331. Paulus Hook. — On the 19th of 
August, Major Henry Lee, with a force 
of four hundred Americans, captured 
Paulus Hook, where Jersey City now 
stands. The British works were stormed 
at half-past two o'clock in the morning, the bayonet only being 
used, and not a shot fired. The Americans lost twenty men, and 
the British fifty killed and wounded, and more than one hundred 
and fifty prisoners. 

332. Spring^field. — During the summer of 1780, General Knyp- 
hausen, then in command at New York City, made constant forays, 
and in June advanced into New Jersey with five thousand men, hop- 
ing to surprise General Washington in his fortified camp. On hear- 
ing of Clinton's success in the South(t 342), he waited for his return. 



General Anthony Wayne was one 

of the most active and conspicuous 
clnracters of the war. His bravery 
g lined him the sobriquet of " Mad 
Anthony," but he was discreet and 
cautious, fruitful in expedients, quick 
in decision, and prompt in execution. 
He participated in a long line of en- 
gagements, from the very beginning of 
the war to its close. He raised a regi- 
ment in September, 1775, was made 
colonel in January, 1776, and briga- 
dier-general in 1777. For his brilliant 
achievement at Stony Point, Congress 
gave him a vote of thanks and a gold 
medal. 

In early life he was a farmer and 
land surveyor. He served in the Penn- 
sylvania Assembly, and was a member 
of the Pennsylvania Convention that 
ratified the United States Constitution. 
It will readily be seen how active his 
life must have been, when it is con- 
sidered that though engaged In so 
many battles, and occupying such va- 
rious honorable positions, yet he died 
at less than fifty-two years of age. 



I779-I780] 



STONY POINT AND PAUL JONES. 



173 



June 23d Clinton united with him in the attack, and a battle ensued 
at Springfield. The American forces, under Greene, Maxwell, and 
Stark, were successful. This was the last invasion of New Jersey by 
the British. 

333. Indians and Tories. — - In New York State, horrible depreda- 
tions had been committed by the Indians and Tories. To put a 
stop to these atrocities. General Sullivan, with a force of five thou- 
sand men, was sent 
against them. A severe 
battle was fought where 
the city of Elmira now 
stands, and the enemy 
completely routed. Sul- 
livan then laid waste the 
Indian country as far as 
the Genesee River. This 
successful expedition ef- 
fectually stopped the 
depredations and atroci- 
ties of the Indians in 
that quarter. 

334. Paul Jones. —Dur- 
ing the summer of 1779, 
a small squadron wa^ 
fitted out at Paris by the 
American commission 
ers, and placed under 
command of Commo 
dore Paul Jones. He 
was a Scotch American, 
and a man of great bravery. September 23d, 1779, while cruising 
with his ship, the " Bon Homme Richard," ofi* the coast of Scot- 
land, he fell in with the British ship *' Serapis," and captured her 
after a most desperate fight. The '' Richard " carried but forty 
guns, many of which were unserviceable. The " Serapis " was 
strongly manned and carried forty-four guns. Having great supe- 
riority in strength she engaged the ** Richard " without hesitation. 
After a contest of an hour and one-half within musket shot, Paul 




John Paul Jones. 



174 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1779 



Jones ran up alongside his adversary and hooked her anchor to 
his own quarter. Jones could only use his smaller guns, but he 

threw combustible materials into every 
part of the *' Serapis," which again and 
again set her on fire. After a two hours' 
terrific conflict the "Serapis" struck 
her flag. Jones raised his colors on 
the captured frigate, and transferred 
his men to her, because his own vessel 
was so damaged that it went down. 
The crew of the ** Serapis " numbered 
three hundred and eighty, of whom 
three hundred and six were killed or 
wounded. 

335. Another Gloomy Period. — The 
last months in the year 1779 constitute 
another gloomy period. The assist- 
ance of the French had proved less 
effective than was anticipated. Several 
important plans of operation had failed. 
The conditions surrounding the army 
and the financial affairs of the country 
were depressing. On the other hand, 
Great Britain was laying plans for 
more vigorous operations. Parliament 
had proposed to enlist more than one 
hundred thousand men in the land and 
naval service of the country. It could 
not be foreseen that within two years 



Admiral Paul Jones should be 
remembered by every school-boy as a 
bold, daring naval officer, who did 
great service to the American cause, 
and whose career was singularly check- 
ered. When a mere boy he went to 
sea, and before he was eighteen, he 
commanded a vessel to the West In- 
dies. Congress commissioned him 
first lieutenant in the navy on the 22d 
of December, 1775- It was at this 
time that he changed his name. His 
original name was John Paul, but in 
gratitude to General Jones, of North 
Carolina, who had strongly recom- 
mended his appointment by Congress, 
he assumed his name. In February, 
1778, he received from Count D'Orvil- 
liers the first salute ever paid to the 
American flag by a foreign man-of-war. 
On the English coast he captured " The 
Drake," a ship of superior force, which 
had been sent out especially to take 
him. After the capture of the " Ser- 
apis " he received from Louis XVI. 
the order of military merit and a sword 
of honor, and Congress ordered a 
gold medal to be struck in honor of 
his achievements. After the war he 
distinguished himself in the Russian 
service as rear admiral, was made a 
vice-admiral, and a knight of Saint 
Ann. Later he resigned his commis- 
sion and removed to Paris, where he 
died. The Star Spangled Banner, it 
is said, was first displayed by him on 
board the " Alfred," in the Delaware. 
" In his character the tenderness and 
sensibility of a woman were united to 
the daring and courage of a hero." 



the final overthrow of the British army 
at Yorktown would prepare the way for the recognition of our in- 
dependence. Before that event, however, still further gloom must 
result from additional disasters in the South. 




A Revolution 



1778] 



WAR IN THE SOUTH. 



175 



CHAPTER XLVII. 



WAR IN THE SOUTH. 

336. Clinton sends a British Force South. — Clinton determined, in 
1778, to transfer aggressive operations to the South. Accordingly, in 
November, he sent Colonel Campbell with two thousand men and a 
fleet under Admiral Parker against 
Savannah. That city was defended 
by less than one thousand men, under 
General Robert Howe. The attack 
was made by the British on the 29th 
of December. In this battle the 
Americans displayed great bravery, 
but were absolutely overpowered by 
the superior numbers of the Brit- 
ish, and were obliged to 



The 
force 




abandon the city. 
British now had a 
of nearly four thou- 
sand men, with 
which, aided by 
many Tories from 
that section, they 
completely overran 
the lower parts of 
Georgia. The 
American force was 
composed princi- 
pally of militia, and 
was much inferior 
in numbers to the 
British. It was 

commanded by General Lincoln, a skilful oflicer, who had shown 
great bravery and had won distinction in Northern campaigns. On 
the first of February, by orders from General Prevost, Colonel 



176 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1779 

Campbell occupied Augusta. Prevost sent another expedition 
against Port Royal Island, in South Carolina. Here the British 
were defeated by General Moultrie with considerable loss. 

337. Brier Creek. — -The British soon after retired from Augusta, 
and the force at Savannah retreated to Hudson's Ferry. On the 
3d of March, General Prevost attacked and defeated the American 
force of two thousand men under General Ashe, at Brier Creek. 
The Americans lost three hundred and forty killed, wounded, and 
prisoners. The British loss was inconsiderable. For a time the 
British held possession of all the lower portion of Georgia, but Gen- 
eral Lincoln by no means gave up the contest. He at once exerted 
himself to increase his force. By the middle of April, his army 
numbered five thousand men. 

338. Fruitless Expedition to Georgia. -^ With four thousand men 
Lincoln set out for Georgia, leaving one thousand at Charleston, 
under General Moultrie. The British general, informed of this 
movement, immediately advanced by rapid marches upon Charles-' 
ton, and forced Moultrie to retreat. This movement compelled 
Lincoln to abandon his expedition and return to the defence of 
Charleston. As Lincoln approached, Prevost withdrew, and soon 
after established the main body of his army at Savannah. It was 
now the 20th of June, and the hot weather and unhealthy season 
obliged both armies to remain inactive until September. 

339. Attack on Savannah. — In September, 1779, the Americans 
laid siege to Savannah. Count D'Estaing appeared with a French 
fleet and six thousand troops. Lincoln with the American forces 
moved up and joined the French. While the siege was progressing, 
a small force under Captain John White, of Georgia, captured, by a 
skilful stratagem, five British vessels with one hundred and thirty 
stand of arms, and more than one hundred British soldiers. The 
British force could not long have stood the siege, but D'Estaing 
became impatient at the delay and insisted upon an immediate 
assault. This took place on the 9th of October, and the combined 
assaulting party of French and Americans was signally repulsed, with 
great slaughter. With the exception of Bunker Hill, there was 
probably no action in the whole war where so great a loss was re- 
ceived in so short a time. The British lost in killed, wounded, and 
missing about one hundred and fifty. The total American loss was 



I 779-1 7^0] 



WAR IN THE SOUTH. 



177 



probably between four hundred and five hundred. The American 
army retired to Charleston, and the French fleet sailed away to the 
West Indies. America mourned the loss in this battle of the noble 
Pole, Count Pulaski, and the gallant Sergeant Jasper. 

340. Expedition against South Carolina. — The principal portion of 
the American army was in winter-quarters at Morristown, New 
Jersey. The winter was an unusually severe one. New York Bay 
was frozen over with ice thick enough to bear the heaviest artillery. 
Washington with difficulty saved his army from starvation. The 
withdrawal of the French fleet from the American coast left the 
Southern States so exposed that Clin- 
ton decided to send another expedition 
against South Carolina, and to lead the 
force himself. In December, having 
withdrawn his army from Newport, he 
set sail with seven thousand of his best 
troops for the south, and landed on 
John's Island, below Charleston. He 
left at New York a force deemed suf- 
ficient to hold that important strategic 
point, under command of General 
Knyphausen. 

341. Lincoln in Command at Charleston. 
— The small force of patriots defending 
Charleston under the command of Gen- 
eral Lincoln was one day surprised to 
see the whole British fleet, in command 
of Admiral Arbuthnot, sail into Charles- 
ton harbor. Lincoln's force was by no means of sufficient strength 
to resist successfully so large an army, but at the earnest request 
of the citizens he determined to remain and take the consequences. 
The slow and cautious advance of the British enabled him to 
strengthen his works, and add to his garrison from the militia of 
the surrounding country. The British laid siege for two months. 
The army was hemmed in on all sides, but defended itself against 
a force more than double its own. Congress was powerless to 
reinforce Lincoln, and apparently failed to appreciate the impor- 
tance of the crisis. 

12 



Fort Moultrie. — Clinton's attack 
on Charleston, in 1780, was not the 
first direct experience that that city had 
had with the war. In the spring of 
1776, a large force under General Clin- 
ton, with a fleet under Sir Peter Parker, 
attacked the city. On June 28th, 
the British began the bombardment, 
but neither shell nor ball injured the 
soft palmetto logs of Fort Sullivan. 
Colonel Moultrie, in command of the 
fort, effectually returned the fire, and, 
with the aid of wind and tide, which 
prevented a hasty retreat, destroyed 
three vessels of the fleet. The British 
army was equally unsuccessful in its 
attempt to attack the fort in its rear. 
At night the vessels withdrew and 
sailed for New York. This victory, 
coming soon after the evacuation of 
Boston, was of great value to the Amer- 
icans. Fort Sullivan was afterwards 
called Fort Moultrie, in honor of its 
gallant commander. 



178 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1780 



342. Lincoln surrenders. — At last surrender was inevitable, and on 
the 1 2th of May, 1780, Lincoln capitulated and the British took pos- 
session of the town. The American loss in prisoners was two thou- 
sand regular troops, and about three thousand militia. Clinton 
immediately sent detachments into the interior, to Camden, to 
Ninety-Six, and to Augusta. The Tories accepted British protec- 
tion, while the patriots largely withdrew into North Carolina. Clin- 
ton left Cornwallis in command and sailed for New York. The 
British troops scattered themselves over the Southern country, and 
systematically collected plunder and spoils of all kinds which were 

sold for the benefit of the army. 
Vessels loaded with rich supplies 
taken from the inhabitants were 
sent abroad. Patriot bands here 
and there protected themselves 
in the swamps, sallying forth to 
harass the British troops on their 
marauding expeditions. 

343. Partisan Leaders. — These 
brave bands were commanded by 
noted patriots, such as Marion, 
Sumter, Pickens, and Lee. In 
August Sumter gained a victory 
over the British and Tories at 
Hanging Rock. The battle lasted 
four hours, and the loss was se- 
The Americans lost about one 
who were present and injured in 
this fight was an orphan boy of Scotch-Irish descent, named Andrew 
Jackson, the future president of the United States. 

344. The Battle of Camden. — Ten days later, August 16th, 1780, Gen- 
eral Gates, having been assigned to command in the South, engaged 
Cornwallis near Camden, each army seeking to surprise the other. 
The British forces were inferior in numbers to the Americans, but 
many of the latter were undisciplined militia. Gates was routed, in 
spite of the bravery of De Kalb and his command. De Kalb fell, 
pierced with many wounds. Whole regiments were literally cut to 
pieces. The British captured several pieces of artillery, two thou- 




Lord Cornwallis. 



t^ere, especially to the British, 
hundred. Among the partisans 



1780] 



WAR IN THE SOUTH. 



179 



sand muskets, the entire baggage train, and one thousand prisoners. 
It had been Washington's intention to assign General Greene to the 
command of the Southern army, but Congress gave the position to 
General Gates. The battle of Camden clearly showed that GatCL 
was not the man for the place. 

345. Battle of King's Mountain. — The continued marauding expe- 
ditions of the British had driven the patriots almost to desperation. 
On October 7th was fought a notable battle at King's Mountain. 
Colonel Tarleton had become notorious for his inhuman butchery of 
prisoners and his extreme barbarity. Apparently he intended to 
give no quarter. " Tarleton's quarter" became a significant byword 
throughout the South. That whole territory was scoured by ma- 
rauding bands under Tarleton and Ferguson. Ferguson took refuge 
on King's Mountain, which is one of a series of rocky summits 
partly within the Southern boundaries 
of North Carolina. Here he was at- 
tacked by an " impromptu, unpaid army 
of volunteers, hastily combined for the 
purpose of ridding the country of 
Ferguson's corps." Among the Ameri- 
can officers were several remarkable 
characters, such as Colonel Isaac Shelby and Colonel John Sevier, 
from Tennessee ; Colonel James Williams, of South Carolina ; Colonel 
Benjamin Cleaveland and Colonel Charles McDowell, of North Caro- 
lina; and Colonel William Campbell, of Virginia. The entire Ameri- 
can force did not exceed sixteen hundred men. They approached 
the hill in front and by both flanks. The battle was exceedingly 
fierce, but quick and decisive. Three times British bayonets pushed 
the Americans back step by step to the foot of the hill. Ferguson 
was killed, and the British surrendered after desperate fighting. The 
victory of the Americans was complete. The British killed and 
wounded numbered nearly five hundred, and the rest were taken 
prisoners. 



" 'T was thfe meeting' of eagles and lions, 

'T was the rushing of tempests and waves, 
Insolent triumph 'gainst patriot defiance, 

Born freemen 'gainst sycophant slaves. 
Scotch Ferguson sounding his whistle. 

As from danger to danger he flies, 
Feels the moral that lies in Scotch tliistle, 

With its ' touch me who dare .' ' and he dies." 
William Gilmore Sim.ms. 



"^^^T^^^^teS- ^ -- " — ^'^^^ ^^^^^ 



l8o FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1780 

CHAPTER XLVIII. 

ARNOLD'S TREASON. 

346. Benedict Arnold. — Now we must have the record of one of the 
most painful events in the whole war. It is the story of the infamous 
treachery of Benedict Arnold. He had proved himself brave and 
efficient, and a skilled military leader. Immediately after the battle 
of Lexington he raised a company of volunteers and marched to 
Cambridge. He was with Ethan Allen at the capture of Ticonde- 
roo-a At the head of one thousand men, he had heroically endured 
the sufferings of that terrible winter's march through the wilderness 
of Maine to Quebec, where he had formerly traded, intending to 
capture the city. Besides participating in other battles, he com- 
manded the left wing at Stillwater, and fought with desperate cour- 
age at Bemis Heights, really winning the day. He was in command 
of the American forces at Philadelphia in 1778-79. Here he dis- 
played extravagance, rapacity, and dishonesty. Tried by court- 
martial, he was mildly sentenced to receive a reprimand from 
Washington. The evidence indicates that months before this he 
had begun his treasonable overtures to the enemy. 

347. Sought the Command of West Point. — He purposely sought the 
command of West Point, which had been fortified by Kosciusko, 
with the deliberate intention of betraying that important post into 
the hands of Sir Henry Clinton. Early in the autumn of 1780 his 
plans were discovered by the capture of Major Andre, and West Point 
was saved. 

348. Major Andre. — Andre was a noble officer of high character, 
assistant adjutant-general to Clinton. At Arnold's request he was 
appointed by Clinton to meet him and arrange the details for the 
capture of West Point. He went up the Hudson and met Arnold 
secretly on the night of September 21st, and before morning they 
completed their plans. Andre received sketches of the fortifications, 
with a detailed account of the forces, where they were stationed, 
and such other information as was needful. Meantime the British 
vessel, the '* Vulture," which carried him up the river, having been 



17S0J Arnold's treason. 181 

fired upon, had dropped down stream. This circumstance obHged 
Andre to make his way back to New York by land. Fortified with 
passes from Arnold in the name of John Anderson, he started on 
horseback upon his return. He passed the American lines in safety. 
349. Andre arrested. — At Tarrytown, September 23d, three 
militiamen at the roadside halted him, his manner having excited 
their suspicion. They searched him and 
found his papers secreted in his stock- 
ings, under his feet. He offered them 
his horse, watch, purse, and any sum of 
gold they might name, to release him. 
They were poor men. They knew the 
worth of money, but they were incor- 
ruptible patriots and despised a bribe 



The three men who arrested Andre 
were John Paulding, David Williams, 
and Isaac Van Wart. Congress re- 
warded these patriots by silver medals, 
inscribed on one side " Fidelity," and 
on the other, " Viticit Amor Patrice,'''' 
and pensions of two hundred dollars a 
year for life. 



Unlike Arnpld, who for gold sold his good name and betrayed his 
country, these three men declared they would not release Andre for 
ten thousand guineas. 

350. Arnold escapes. — Arnold was notified of Andre's capture, 
through the stupidity of an officer, who thought the arrest import- 
ant, but failed to realize Arnold's part in the transaction. He 
mounted his horse in haste, rode to a wild spot at the river-side 
where he had secreted his boat, jumped into it, and was rowed 
out to the " Vulture." He held the rowers of his boat as prisoners, 
but, with a finer sense of honor, Clinton released them at New 
York. He joined the British army, was made brigadier-general, 
and received a reward of ;^6,3I5 for his treachery, and Mrs. Arnold 
was subsequently granted a pension of ;^500 per annum. But 
he justly merited the contempt of everybody, and the name of 
** Arnold the Traitor" will perpetuate his infamy through the 
ages. Andre was tried, condemned, and hanged as a spy. Every 
effort was made to save him from this ignominious fate, but, though 
all had great personal respect for him as an honorable soldier, yet 
the American cause required the execution of the sad sentence. 

351. Character of Arnold. — Arnold's treachery stands by itself 
in the annals of the history of all time, an emphatic warning to 
mankind against reckless selfishness, perfidy, im.moral extrava- 
gance, and a total loss of upright moral character. When a boy, 
Arnold was mischievous, bold, headlong, and turbulent. He was 



l82 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1780 



apprenticed and ran away. He enlisted as a soldier and deserted. 
He became a bankrupt with the reputation of dishonesty. After 
joining the continental army, he showed everywhere great bravery 
and good generalship, and was highly esteemed by Washington. 
While in command at Philadelphia he became seriously involved 
in debt, and this financial embarrassment, together with an inordi- 
nate and selfish ambition for promotion, which he considered had 
not been accorded to him by Congress as rapidly as he deserved, 

induced in his mind, so utterly devoid 
of the true principles of rectitude, a 
willingness to sell his reputation and his 
country for British gold and military 
preferment. 

352. Washington plans to capture 
Arnold. — As soon as Washington knew 
of the defection of Arnold, he promptly 
devised a plan to secure Arnold's im- 
mediate capture, selecting JohnChampe, 
the sergeant-major of Henry Lee's cav- 
alry, for the purpose. The plan was 
that Champe should pretend to desert 
and join the British in New York, se- 
cure a position near Arnold, observe 
his habits, and watch for an opportu- 
nity to capture him. Champe joined 
Arnold's legion and soon arranged a 
scheme for his capture. Arnold was 
in the habit of walking in his garden 
every night about midnight, and with 
the assistance of one man Champe 
was to step quickly through the fence, 
boards being loosened for this purpose, 
place a gag in Arnold's mouth, and carry him away through the 
back alleys of the city to the river, representing him as a drunken 
soldier whom they were conveying to the guard-house. They would 
then row to the Jersey shore, and turn him over to liee and a party 
of dragoons. The whole scheme failed, for a singular reason. On 
the day preceding the night fixed upon for the execution of the 



John Champe, in his desertion and 
escape, showed himself worthy of the 
trust placed in him. His absence was 
discovered within half an hour, and Lee 
informed of it. A pursuing party was 
quickly put upon the road, with orders 
to take him alive, if possible, but to 
shoot him if he resisted. All night the 
pursued and pursuers were pushing on 
for New York. In the early dawn 
Champe was descried not more than 
half a mile in front. He at the same 
time discovered his pursuers. Both 
parties instantly put their horses to 
the top of their speed. Champe now 
changed his course and rode directly 
for the river, where two British galleys 
were anchored. He threw himself off 
his horse, pushed across the marsh, 
plunged into the water, and called upon 
the galleys for help. The pursuing 
party fired upon him without effect, 
and returned with his captured horse. 

After Champe reached Virginia, it 
was some months before he secured an 
opportunity to escape- He made his 
way into North Carolina, where he 
joined his old corps under Major, now 
Lieutenant-Colonel, I^ee. He was sent 
to General Washington, who promptly 
gave him discharge papers, lest he 
might by chance fall into the enemy's 
hands, when, if recognized, he would 
be sure to die upon the gallows. 



i78i] 



ARNOLDS TREASON. 



183 



plot, Arnold had removed his headquarters to prepare for an expe- 
dition which he was fitting out against Virginia. Thus it happened 
that John Champe instead of crossing the Hudson that night was 
placed on board one of Arnold's transports, from which he did not 
depart until he landed with Arnold and his legion in Virginia. 

353. Arnold a British Officer. — Arnold's subsequent course, to 
the close of the war, was infamous in the extreme. In December 
he sailed for Virginia with sixteen hun- 
dred men. He set Richmond on fire, 
destroyed other property in the vicinity, 
and spent the spring and summer of 
1 78 1 in making raids through the State, 
burning and pillaging the country. In 
September he was commissioned to 
make an invasion of Connecticut, his 
native State. He captured Fort Gris- 
wold, opposite New London, and in- 
discriminately butchered the garrison 
after it had surrendered. He burned 
the town of New London, utterly for- 
getful of the fact that he was almost 
within sight of his own birthplace. This 
was his last exploit in his native coun- 
try. Here in reality he closed his mil- 
itary and public career. 

354. Arnold's Subsequent Life. — After the war was ended he 
went to England, and lived about twenty years, shunned and 
despised by every one. At one time Lord Surrey had risen in the 
House of Commons to speak, when, seeing Arnold in the gallery, 
he pointed to him and exclaimed, ** I will not speak while that 
man is in the house." A well-known officer in the American 
army who had known Arnold in early life was in London. Arnold 
called at his door, and sent in his name. " Tell the gentleman 
I am not at home," said the officer, " and never shall be for 
General Arnold." 



Robert Morris. —The American 
Commissary Department had never 
been well managed. Abuses had crept 
in. Frauds were not uncommon. The 
soldiers were suffering for want of cloth- 
ing and proper provisions, and their 
pay had been kept back for months. 
Mutinies among tlie soldieis frequently 
took place, thougli they were promptly 
suppressed by the use of loyal troops. 
These troubles, however, produced 
good results. They aroused both the 
States and the Congress to make greater 
exertions to raise money to pay the 
soldiers, and to provide for their neces- 
sities. One of the strong men of the 
time was Robert Morris, a wealthy 
merchant of Philadelphia. He was 
appointed financial agent for the gov- 
ernment, and it was largely through 
his efforts and ability that existing 
difficulties were overcome, and the army 
put in such condition as would give us 
the final victory. 



[84 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1781 



CHAPTER XLIX. 



THE LAST CAMPAIGNS 



355. General Greene. — General Greene was appointed to succeed 
General Gates In command of the army at the South. He found, 

on taking command, that his force was 
very small, and was composed of half- 
clothed, half-starved men. Neverthe- 
less, he at once sent General Morgan 
with a portion of the troops across the 
mountains, so as to threaten Ninety- 
Six, as well as the line of small posts 
in the rear of the British army. This 
was good strategy, but it left him 
with not more than two thousand men 
for immediate service. Cornwallis de- 
spatched Tarleton to strike Morgan 
while he himself should advance upon 
Greene. Morgan took position at the 
Cowpens, in an angle of the Broad 
River, where swiftness and depth of 
current made retreat impossible, and 
secreted his mounted men behind a 
hill in the rear. He then deliberately 
planned to destroy Tarleton's " hated" 
troops. 

356. Battle of Cowpens. — When Tarle- 
ton advanced through an open wood, 
January 11th, 1781, the first American 
lines opened fire, but then, as instructed, 
fell back and retired to the rear. The 
British, supposing this to be a genuine 
retreat, pushed on in some confusion 
and were confronted by the continentals. Tarleton spurred around 
the American left, in pursuit of the retiring militia, but an impetuous 



Nathaniel Greene, a native of 
Rhode Island, was born in 1742 and 
died in 17S6. He was a farmer and 
blacksmith. While working at his 
forge, he studied Euclid's geometry. 
Having natural military tastes, he care- 
fully perused Caesar's Commentaries, 
Marshal Turenne's works, Siiarp's 
" Military Guide," Blackstone's Com- 
mentaries, and the works of Watts, 
Locke, and similar authors. He was 
also a member of a militia company, 
which had as instructor a British ser- 
geant who had deserted at Boston. He 
was a member of the Rhode Island 
Legislature from 1770 until lie took 
command of the Southern army. After 
the battle of Lexington, he led to Cam- 
bridge three regiments of militia from 
Rhode Island, of which he had been 
appointed brigadier-general. He was 
distinguished at Trenton, at Brandy- 
wine, and at Germantown. But his 
great success was in managing, with 
great skill, under adverse circum- 
stances, the Southern campaign against 
a superior force. His celebrated re- 
treat from South Carolina across North 
Carolina into Virginia won for him a 
high rank in the estimation of military 
men. Congress presented him with 
two pieces of ordnance taken from the 
British army, " as a public testimony 
of the wisdom, fortitude, and military 
skill which distinguished his command 
in the Southern department." The 
State of Georgia presented him with a 
fine plantation near Savannah, to which 
he removed his family in the autumn 
of 1785. 



i78i] 



THE LAST CAMPAIGNS. 



185 



Tarleton barely escaped capture 
at the battle of Cowpens. He was 
wounded by a blow from the sword 
of Colonel William A. Washington. 
Some time after this battle Colonel 
Tarleton remarked to a company of 
South Carolina ladies, " I have been 
told that Colonel Washington is very 
illiterate, and can scarcely write his 
name." " But, Colonel," replied one 
of the ladies, " he can at least iiiake 
his mark.''' Tarleton rejoined that 
he would like very much to see Colonel 
Washington. Upon which the lady 
instantly replied, " You might have 
had that pleasure, Colonel, if you had 
looked behind you at the battle of 
Cowpens." 



charge of the cavalry scattered his loose column and put it to 
flight. The Americans were entirely victorious, losing but twelve 
men killed and about sixty wounded, while the British lost one 

hundred and twenty-nine killed and 
wounded, and six hundred prisoners. 
The capture of two cannon, eight hun- 
dred muskets, thirty-five wagon-loads 
of supplies, and one hundred horses 
was a timely acquisition to the patriot 
army. 

357. Battle of Guilford Court House.— 
Greene slowly retreated into Virginia, 
and used every effort to recruit his 
little army. In March, at the head of 
a force of five thousand men, he ad- 
vanced into North Carolina to meet 
the British under Cornwallis. On the 
fifteenth a bloody battle was fought at Guilford Court House. 
The loss in killed and wounded was about equal for the two 
armies; but Greene retired in order and took up his camp a {q\n 
miles away. Cornwallis remained 
in possession of the field, and there- 
fore claimed the victory. On the 
twenty-fifth of April another engage- 
ment took place at Hobkirk Hill, 
where each army lost about two hun- 
dred and fifty men, but Greene was 
finally compelled to leave the field. 

358. Battle of Eutaw Springs.— 
After the battle of Guilford Court 
House, Cornwallis retired to Wil- 
mington. On due consideration, he 
decided to march northward into 
Virginia, and thus, as he hoped, 
draw Greene out of the Carolinas. 
Greene, however, moved South at 
once, and began the process of winning back the Southern States. 
Sumter and Marion kept up a continuous warfare during May and 




General Nathaniel Greene. 

(After a miniature on ivory) 



1 86 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1781 



Mrs. Rebecca Mott was the owner 
of a large, new private mansion, around 
which a stockade, called Fort Mott, 
had been built. Here the British were 
defending themselves. Colonel Lee 
told Mrs. Mott, who at this time was 
living in a cottage without the fort, 
that if he could burn her fine house 
the British would be obliged to sur- 
render. With quick decision this pa- 
triotic woman replied that she should 
be only too well pleased to perform any 
service for her country, and immedi- 
ately furnished Lee with an East In- 
dian bow aud arrows, with which 
combustible matter was shot over the 
house, and the building was fired. 
The British garrison was then forced 
to surrender. 



June, captured Orangeburg, Fort Mott, Fort Granby, Fort Corn- 
wallis, Georgetown, Augusta, and besieged Ninety-Six. In Septem- 
ber Greene fought the last battle of the 
war, in the far South, at Eutaw Springs. 
His attack upon the enemy was at first 
successful, but the men stopped for 
plunder and the British returned to the 
attack. The British retreated during 
the night, so that, in all its effects, the 
battle was a victory for the Americans. 
359. Cornwallis in Virginia. — Corn- 
wallis, after starting north from Wil- 
mington, hastened his march, and on 
May 20th reached Petersburg, Virginia. 
Washington had sent Lafayette south, 
with about twelve hundred continentals. 
He took up his headquarters in Vir- 
ginia. Cornwallis endeavored to force an engagement, but the 
prudent marquis would not hazard a battle with a force so superior 
to his own. The British army therefore continued its marauding 

expeditions, destroying property 
both public and private, until it 
had crossed the Virginia peninsula, 
and had gathered its whole force at 
Yorktown. 

360. Washington's Plans. — Mean- 
while, Washington threatened New 
York, controllingall land approaches, 
and pressed so closely upon the 
British lines, by day and night, that 
Clinton sent messengers to Corn- 
wallis to announce that he was in 
a state of siege, and must have im- 
mediate reinforcements. Washing- 
ton determined to unite all available 
troops and crush Cornwallis. Still 
keeping up appearances before New York, he moved his main army 
through New Jersey, and even reached Wilmington on the Delaware 




Lafayette. 

(From the Bartholdi statue in Union Square, 
New York City.) 



i78i] 



THE LAST CAMPAIGNS. 



187 



before Clinton suspected his design. A French fleet under Count 
de Grasse was on its way to the Chesapeake. It arrived August 
30th, and on the 3d of September, Count de St. Simon joined La- 
fayette with over three thousand troops. On the 14th of Septem- 
ber the commander-in-chief 
reached Lafayette's head- 



YORKTOWN 




quarters at Wilhamsburg. 

361. At Yorktown. — Sep- 
tember 29th, the combined 
armies appeared before York- 
town. CornwalHs had fortified 
the town and also Gloucester 
Point, across the river. He 
was surrounded, and must 
surrender or fight his way 
out. De Grasse prevented 
his escape by sea. The situa- 
tion was in every way favora- 
ble to the Americans. The 
real siege began by a bom- 
bardment, October 9th, and from this time the combined army 
made a continuous advance. A hundred cannon were concentrated 

upon the British fortifications, with 
such effect as to dismount every gun. 
Finally, CornwalHs determined to trans- 
port his entire force across the river 
and retreat by way of Gloucester, 
breaking through the French forces 
stationed in the rear of that place, 
with the hope of reaching New York. 
On the night of the i6th of Octo- 
ber, one division of his troops had 
crossed the river when a severe storm 
arose which dispersed his boats, and 

utterly thwarted his purpose. No alternative now remained but 

to capitulate. 

362. The British surrender. — Accordingly, on the 19th of October, 
1781, the British army surrendered to Washington, and the fleet 



Yorktown. — The spot where Corn- 
wallis surrendered his army is sacred to 
American patriotism, and a monument 
has been erected there to commemorate 
the victory. Eighty years later York- 
town was again made famous by its 
Confederate fortifications under Gen- 
eral Magruder, and its siege by the 
Federal army under McClellan. In 
188 1 there was an appropriate celebra- 
tion at Yorktown of the one hundredth 
anniversary of the surrender of Corn- 
wallis, at which the late Honorable 
Robert C. Winthrop of Massachusetts 
delivered the oration. 



1 88 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1781-I782 

to De Grasse. The combined French and American armies num- 
bered sixteen thousand men. The British force numbered seven 
thousand in addition to nine hundred seamen. The loss of the 
alHes was two hundred and eighty-four, and that of the British, five 
hundred and fifty-two. The British force, under arms, marched to 
a plain in the rear of Yorktovvn to surrender. Cornwallis, worn out, 
mortified, and sick, deputed General O'Hara to tender his sword 
upon that occasion. It will be remembered that brave General 
Lincoln had been obliged a few months before to surrender his 
sword to a junior officer at Charleston (1 342). Washington deputed 
him to receive the sword of Cornwallis. This was a piece of poetic 
justice, doubtless not unappreciated by Lincoln. 

363. Clinton Too Late. — Meanwhile Sir Henry Clinton had em- 
barked a force of seven thousand men at New York to reinforce 
Cornwallis, but he was too late. The surrender took place five 
days before he made his appearance off Cape Charles. The news 
of this decisive victory was received with joyful exultation by the 
people from one end of the country to the other. Congress passed 
resolutions thanking the officers and soldiers, and proceeded in a 
body to church to offer thanks to Almighty God for the triumph. 
The 13th of December was also observed as a day of national 
thanksgiving. 



CHAPTER L. 

THE GREAT TREATY OF 1783. 

364. The War must cease. — Throughout the whole war a large 
party in England had favored the American cause, but they were in 
the minority. The people of England, however, were now determined 
that the war should cease. After the battle of Yorktown no further 
hostilities of importance took place. In the spring of 1782, the 
British House of Commons passed strong resolutions against a 
continuance of the war, and resolved that all persons who pro- 
posed its prosecution should be considered public enemies. Lord 
North, the prime minister, was obliged to resign. The new minister 



I782-I783] 



THE GREAT TREATY OF 1783. 



189 



favored peace with the colonies, and was willing to consent to their 
independence. 

365. Preparations for a Treaty of Peace. — Congress confided the 
important matter of arranging a peace to five commissioners, — John 
Adams, Dr. Franklin, John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, and Henry Lau- 
rens. The negotiations were to take place at Paris. Mr. Jefferson 
did not go over, and therefore took no part. Henry Laurens was in 
ill health, having lately been released from the Tower of London, 
where he had been long held as a political prisoner. He was able 
therefore to share but little in the negotiations, and the work fell 
principally upon Adams, Franklin, and Jay. Li our first treaty with 
France it had been stipulated that, when the time came for a treaty 
of peace with Great Britain, France should be a party to the treaty, 
and, when these commissioners were appointed. Congress resolved 
that the commissioners should '' take no step without France." 

366. Territory north of the Ohio River.— Mr. Oswald, the British 
commissioner, proposed that our Western boundary should be the 
Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Franklin objected and said, *' If you 
insist on that, we go back to Yorktown." Oswald yielded the point, 

and consented that we should have the 

territory between the Ohio River and 
the Great Lakes. It soon became ap- 
parent that the French government was 
more willing to help Spain, which was 
desirous to attach to their province of 
Louisiana the country north of the 
Ohio. It became necessary therefore 
for our commissioners to act inde- 
pendently of France. 

367. The Provisional Treaty. — The 
provisional treaty was concluded and 
signed on the 30th of November, 1782, 
by Richard Oswald on the part of Great 
Britain, and Adams, Franklin, Jay, and 
Laurens on the part of the United States. This was done before 
Count de Vergennes knew its contents. The definitive treaty, of 
like import, was signed September 3d, 1783, by David Hartley, repre- 
senting Great Britain, and Adams, FrankHn, and Jay for the United 



John Adams and King George.— 

Two years later, John Adams was ap- 
pointed the first minister to represent 
tlie United States government at the 
British Court. He was received in 
person by the king, and in his address 
to that royal personage he alluded to 
"the people under different govern- 
ments" which "have the same Ian- 
guage, a similar religion, and kindred 
blood." The king, in his response, 
said : " I will be frank with you. . . . 
I was the last to conform to the sepa- 
ration, but the separation having been 
made, and having become inevitable, 
I have always said, as I say now, that 
I would be the first to meet the friend- 
ship of the United States as an inde- 
pendent power." 



igO FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1760-1777 

States. The treaty gave us all the territory as far north as the 
Great Lakes, westward to the Lake of the Woods, thence south- 
ward down the Mississippi River, through its whole extent, to 
latitude 31°. 

368. What we owe to Jay, Adams, and Franklin. — John Jay was 
largely instrumental in securing to us the great Northwest. John 
Adams is specially entitled to the credit of obtaining the provision 
in the treaty that " The United States shall continue to enjoy unmo- 
lested the right to take fish of every kind on the Great Bank, and 
on all other banks of Newfoundland." To Benjamin Franklin the 
credit is due, through his great influence and popularity, that the 
treaty as a whole was successfully executed. 

369. Payment to the Loyalists. — The matter of payment to the 
Loyalists for their property confiscated could not be undertaken by 
Congress because it was a matter that concerned the States respec- 
tively. Therefore it was " agreed that the Congress shall earnestly 
recommend to the legislatures of the respective States, to provide 
for the restitution of such estates, rights, and properties." 



CHRONOLOGY. 

1760. England — Reign of George III. 

1776. South Carolina — Fort Moultrie, June 28. 
New York — Long Island, August 27. 
New York — White Plains, October 28. 
New York — Fort Washington, November 16. 
New Jersey — Trenton, December 26. 

1777. New Jersey — Princeton, January 3. 
New York — Ticonderoga, July 6. 

Rhode Island — Capture of General Prescott, July 9. 

New York — British army sails for Philadelphia, July 23. 

Vermont — Bennington, August 16. 

Pennsylvania — Brandywine, September 11. 

New York — Freeman's Farm, or Stillwater, September 19. 

Pennsylvania — Philadelphia taken, September 26. 

Pennsylvania — Germantown, October 4. 

New York — Bemis Heights, October 7. 

New York — Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17. 



I777-I7S3] 



CHRONOLOGY. 



191 



1777. Pennsylvania — Articles of confederation adopted by Congress, 

November 15. 
Pennsylvania — Winter-quarters at Valley Forge. 

1778. France — Treaty and alliance, February 6. 
Pennsylvania — British abandon Philadelphia, June 18. 
New Jersey — Monmouth, June 28. 

Rhode Island — French fleet at Newport, August. 
Georgia — Capture of Savannah, December 29. 

1779. Georgia — Brier Creek, March 3. 
New York — Stony Point, July 16. 
New Jersey — Paulus Hook, August 19. 

English Channel — Paul Jones's victory, September 23. 
Georgia — Attack on Savannah, October 9. 
1780- South Carolina — Charleston taken, May 12. 
New Jersey — Springfield, June 23. 
South Carolina — Camden, August 16. 
New York — Arnold's treason, September. 
New Jersey — Andre executed, October 2. 
North Carolina — King's Mountain, October 7. 

1781. North CaroHna — Cowpens, January 17. 

North Carolina — Greene's retreat, January and February. 
Philadelphia — Articles of confederation go into effect, March z 
North Carolina — Guilford Court House, March 15. 
South Carolina — Hobkirk Hill, April 25. 
Connecticut — Burning of New London, September 6. 
South Carolina — Eutaw Springs, September 8. 
Virginia — Surrender of Cornwallis, October 19. 

1782. Paris — Provisional treaty of peace, November 30. 

1783. Paris — Treaty of peace, September 3. 




ISlacfiboarD anal^stg. 



THE NEW NATION 



Confederacy 



Conventions 



. Constitution 



Government needed. 
Revolutionary Government. 
Articles of Confederation. 
Weakness of the Articles 
Paper Money. 
Efforts to amend the Articles. 

Need of Action. 

Convention of 1786. 

The Federal Convention, 1787. 

Illustrious Members. 

A New Constitution. 

Adopted by the People. 
Preamble. 

Legislative Branch. 
Powers of Congress. 
Executive Branch. 
Judicial Branch. 
Amendments. 



SECTION VIII. 
THE NEW NATION. 1781-1789. 



CHAPTER LI. 

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 

370. Committee on Independence. — As early as June nth, 1776, 
the Continental Congress had determined on separation from the 
mother country (TF 276). On that day a committee was appointed 
to draft a ''Declaration of Independence." If the colonies separated, 
a form of national government would be necessary. 

371. Articles of Confederation. — Consequently on the same day 
another committee was appointed to prepare *' Articles of Confed- 
eration and of Perpetual Union." This committee reported such 
articles soon after its appointment. These articles were from time 
to time considered by the Congress and variously modified, but for 
more than a year no agreement could be reached. Finally they 
were agreed to by Congress, November 15th, 1777. They were 
to become binding only when ratified by all the States. Maryland 
withheld her approval till March 1st, 1781. Consequently they did 
not go into effect until nearly five years after the Declaration of 
Independence. 

372. Revolutionary Government. — These articles were the result of 
the first effort of the States to form a national government. Hitherto 
the government was merely a revolutionary body, consisting of 
a committee of the States, called the Continental Congress. This 
Congress was, in fact, a national government, but it had not taken 
on a permanent type. The influence of the State governments was 
largely predominant. Small power was delegated to Congress, 
while sovereignty was claimed for every State. 

13 



194 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1781 

373. Weakness of the Articles of Confederation. — The articles were 
equally inefficient in practice and erroneous in theory. They al- 
lowed the continuance of the Congress as a single .body. The 
president of the Congress was elected once a year, by the members, 
from their own number. Each State could send not less than two 
nor more than seven delegates chosen yearly. Every State, large or 
small, had one equal vote in the Congress. 

374. What Congress could and could not do. — The Congress ex- 
ercised legislative, executive, and judicial functions; there was no 
chief executive, and no national courts. It had certain powers 
relating to peace and war, intercourse with foreign nations, post- 
offices, coining money, and borrowing money; but the assent of 
nine States was requisite in all matters of importance, and no change 
of these articles could be made without the agreement thereto of the 
legislature of every State. Congress could impose no taxes, could 
not enforce its requisitions on the States, and v/hen troops were 
needed, it could only ask each State to furnish its quota, and had no 
powers of compulsion. Indeed, Congress was characterized by little 
else than power to recommend measures, no one of which it could 
enforce. It could make treaties, but could not enforce them. It 
could appoint ambassadors, but could not pay them their salaries. 
It could borrow money, but had no means of paying it. It could 
coin money, but could not purchase an ounce of bullion. It could 
make war and determine how many troops were needed, but it 
could not raise a single soldier. In short, it could declare every- 
thing, and it could do nothing. 

375. Paper Money. — Both the United States and the several States 
issued large quantities of paper money during the war. This money 
was rudely printed and easily counterfeited. The larger the quan- 
tity issued, the less likely would the State be to redeem it ; hence 
its value rapidly declined. In 1781, in Philadelphia, a pair of 
boots sold for $600, handkerchiefs at $100 apiece, calico at $85 
a yard. At one time a barrel of flour cost $1,575, ^^^ John 
Adams paid $2,000 for a suit of clothes. A bill of goods, the 
amount of which was $3,144.50 in currency, was paid by iJ^iS lO^". 
in coin, which was equivalent to less than $100 of real value. 
Congress asked the States to stop issuing paper money. The 
States refused. 



1786-1787] THE FEDERAL CONVENTION. 1 95 

376. Efforts to amend the Articles. — At last Congress asked the 
States to amend the articles; Rhode Island refused, and as the 
consent of every State was necessary for any change, the measure 
failed. Congress again asked for additional powers; New York 
refused, and the measure failed. Congress asked for power to regu- 
late the trade of the country for twenty-five years for national pur- 
poses; New Hampshire and North Carolina refused. Congress 
repudiated the national debt, and the States repudiated the State 
debts. The country was bankrupt. Congress was absolutely help- 
less, and confessed her helplessness. 



CHAPTER LII. 

THE FEDERAL CONVENTION. 

377. Need of Action. — It was clearly evident that some decisive 
action must soon be taken ; otherwise the government would 
assuredly go to pieces. Washington wrote to a member of Con- 
gress : '* You talk, my good sir, of employing influence. Influence 
is not governnieiit. Let us have a government by which our lives, 
liberties, and properties will be secured, or let us know the worst 
at once." 

378. The Convention of 1786. — In January, 1786, Virginia appointed 
commissioners to meet with those from other States for the purpose 
of recommending some steps to help trade and commerce. Only 
five States sent delegates to this convention, which was held in Sep- 
tember, at Annapolis, Maryland. A minority of the States only being 
represented, the convention did not venture to make recommen- 
dations, but prepared a report which was drawn up by Alexander 
Hamilton, proposing that a general convention should be called to 
devise such provisions as might render the ** Constitution of the 
Federal government adequate to the exigencies of the Union." This 
report was sent to the States and to Congress. 

379. Resolution of Congress. — On the 21st of February, 1787, the 
Congress adopted the following resolution : — 



196 



FORMATION OF THE NATION. 



[1787 




ChaT and Table used by Washington as President 
of the Federal Convention. 



" Resolved, That, in the opinion of Congress, it is expedient 
that, on the second Monday in May next, a convention of delegates, 
who shall have been appointed by the several States, be held at Phil- 
adelphia, for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of 
Confederation, and reporting to Congress and the several legislatures 
such alterations and provisions therein as shall, when agreed to in 

Congress and confirmed by the 
States, render the Federal Con- 
stitution adequate to the exi- 
gencies of government and the 
preservation of the Union." 

380. The Convention held. — In 
response to this recommenda- 
tion all the States except Rhode 
Island appointed delegates to 
meet in convention at Philadel- 
phia on the 14th of the following 
May. A quorum was not present 
until the 25th, when George Washington was unanimously elected 
President of the Convention. This has always been styled " TJie 
Federal Convention^ and it was this body which framed the present 
Constitution of the United States. 

381. Its Illustrious Members. — It contained many of the foremost 
men in the country. There were fifty-five members in all, most of 
whom were illustrious for their character and public services. It 
was undoubtedly the most celebrated gathering of able men ever 
convened in America. The following description of this convention 
is given by Prof Francis Newton Thorpe : — 

" Of the thirty-nine members of the convention who subscribed 
their names to the Constitution, Sherman, Read, Franklin, Wilson, 
and Robert Morris had signed the Declaration of Independence; 
Washington became the first and Madison the fourth President of 
the United States ; Rutledge and Ellsworth became Chief-Justices ; 
Gerry became Vice-President, and Hamilton the first Secretary of 
the Treasury ; Johnson was a doctor of laws ; Sherman a great 
lawyer and once a shoemaker; Livingston had been eleven times 
governor of his State ; Wilson, the ablest constitutional lawyer in 
the convention, famed in four universities, and professor in the 



1787-1790] CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



197 



University of Pennsylvania; Gouverneur Morris, who on the last 
day of the session reduced the Constitution to the form with which 
we are acquainted ; and Franklin, the learned, practical diplomat, 

an octogenarian, completing a life of 

splendid fame by the gift of his long 
political experience to his country at 
the most critical period of her history." 
382. The Convention frames a New 
Constitution. — This convention sat with 
closed doors in Independence Hall, the 
very place where the Continental Con- 
gress had adopted the Declaration of 
Independence, for nearly four months, 
through the heat of the entire summer 
from May till September. A constitu- 
tion was agreed upon, September 17th, 



The Rising Sun. — On the carved 
back of the chair in which Washing- 
ton sat as President of the Convention 
throughout its deliberations was ihe 
representation of tlie sun upon ilie liori- 
zon, with its diverging rays sliooting 
upward. Wiien the Convention iiad 
finished its labors, and the nienibtrs, 
one after another, were affixing their 
signatures to the Constitution, Benja- 
min Franklin, wlio stood rubbing tlie 
glasses of his spectacles with his liand- 
kerchief, remarked to one standing at 
iiis side, " I have often wondered 
whetlier that was a setting or a rising 
sun. I think there is no longer any 
doubt but that the sun of America is 
rising." 



1787. This result of their labors, though 
not a perfect instrument, yet is remarkable for its scope, its breadth, 
its provision for emergencies, and its general adaptation to the times 
and the country for which it was designed. 



CHAPTER LIII. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

a83. Adopted by the People. — The new instrument framed by the 
Federal Convention was called the " Constitution of the United 
States of America." (Appendix C.) It was to go into effect between 
the States ratifying it when nine States or two-thirds of the whole 
number had agreed to it. It was assailed vigorously with all sorts 
of abuse. Conventions were called in the several States to ratify or 
reject it. State after State consented to its ratification. The last 
two States to accept the Constitution were North Carolina and 
Rhode Island; the former in 1789 and the latter in 1790. 

384. Its Preamble. — The preamble of the Constitution reads as 
follows : — 



198 FORMATION OF THE NATION. [1789 

" We, the people of the United States, In order to form a more 
perfect union, estabHsh justice, insure domestic tranquilHty, provide 
for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure 
the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and 
establish this Constitution for the United States of America." 

385. Legislative Power. — By the Constitution the powers of the 
government are divided into three classes. The legislative power is 
delegated to a Congress of the United States, which consists of two 
branches ; a Senate, and a House of Representatives. The Repre- 
sentatives are elected by the people every two years. The Senators 
are chosen every six years by the legislatures of the several States. 

386. Powers of Congress. — It is the business of Congress to make 
laws for the nation. It must not interfere with the rights of the 
States. Each State has its own laws, made by the two corresponding 
houses of its State legislature. The powers of Congress are care- 
fully defined in the Constitution, and are as follows : — 

1. "To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises to pay the 
debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the 
United States." 

2. To borrow money. 

3. To regulate commerce. 

4. To make laws concerning the naturalization of foreigners. 

5. To make laws concerning bankruptcies. 

6. To coin money and fix the standard of weights and measures. 

7. To provide for punishing counterfeiters. 

8. To establish post-offices and post-roads. 

9. To grant copyrights for books and patents for inventions. 

10. To establish United States courts. 

11. To punish piracy. 

12. To declare war and for this purpose to support armies. 

13. To provide and maintain a navy. 

14. To call forth the militia of the several States when needed. 

15. To organize, arm, and discipline this militia force when called forth. 

16. To exercise full control over the District of Columbia, and ovei 
post-offices, custom-houses, arsenals, etc., which belong to the nation. 

17. And finally, "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper 
for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested 
by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any depart- 
ment, or officer thereof," 



1789] CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 1 99 

387. Executive Power. — The executive power is vested in a 
President of the United States, who is elected for a term of four years 
by electors who are appointed by the people of the several States. 
Each State has as many electors as it has Senators and Representa- 
tives in the National Congress. These electors are chosen on the 
Tuesday after the first Monday in November. They meet in their 
respective States on the second Monday in January, and vote for 
President and Vice-President. These votes are counted by Con- 
gress on the second Wednesday in February. The following are 
the principal duties of the President : — 

1 . He is Commander-in-Chief of the army and navy of the United States. 

2. He has power to grant reprieves and pardon for offences against the 
United States. 

3. He has power to make treaties, by and with the advice and consent 
of the Senate, two-thirds of the Senators concurring. 

4. He has power to nominate, for the concurrence of the Senate, ambas- 
sadors, ministers to other countries, consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, 
and various other officers of the United States. 

5. He may call together the two houses of Congress when he shall deem 
it necessary. 

6. " He shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall 
commission all the officers of the United States." 

388. Judicial Power. — The judicial power is confided to a series 
of United States courts, the principal of which are the following: 

1. The United States Supreme Court. 

2. The United States Circuit Court of Appeals. 

3. The United States Circuit Court. 

4. The United States District Courts. 

5. The United States Court of Claims. 

6. The United States Supreme Court for the District of Columbia. 

7. The United States Territorial Courts for the several territories. 

389. Amendments. — This Constitution has now been the supreme 
law of the land for more than a century. It has not been abrogated 
or overturned, but fifteen amendments have been added to it, from 
time to time. We shall hereafter see that under this Constitution 
the country has grown rapidly in territory and population, and that 
the Constitution has been to it a source of great prosperity. 



'Blacfeboaru atnal^jsiis. 



Presidents 



Domestic Affairs 



Washington 
John Adams 
Jefferson . 
Madison 
L Monroe . . 



1 789-1 797. 

1797-1801. 
1801-1809. 
1809-1 8 1 7. 
1817-1825. 



Industries. 

Inventions. 

Growth. 

Indian Troubles. 

Conspiracy and Rebellion. 

Slavery. 

Explorations. 

Tariffs. 

Parties. 



Foreign Affairs 



States Admitted 



War with Tripoli. 
European Complications. 
Commercial Restrictions. 
War with France. 
War with England. 
Purchase of Louisiana. 
Purchase of Florida. 

Vermont 1791 

Kentucky 1792 

Tennessee 1796 

Ohio 1803 

Louisiana 1812 

Indiana 1816 

Mississippi 1817 

Illinois 1818 

Alabama 1819, 

Maine 1820 

Missouri 1821 




lart III. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 
1789-1894. 



SECTION IX. 
THE NATION ESTABLISHED. 1789-1825. 



CHAPTER LIV. 

THE NATION'S POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. 

390. The New Nation. — The nation was now to begin a new exis- 
tence under the Constitution. The dawn of a new day had come. 
The people were interested, hopeful, on tiptoe with anticipation. 
The general feeling agreed with Franklin that the sun of the nation's 
prosperity was rising. Many circumstances conspired to render the 
outlook favorable, though business was much depressed, the people 
poor, and the industries few. 

391. Population. — The first census of the United States was taken 
in 1790, and showed an entire population of less than four millions. 
The States of New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio have each 
to-day a population larger than that of the whole country when 
Washington was inaugurated President. The centre of population 
was east of Baltimore, on the eastern side of Chesapeake Bay. 

392. Industries. — The mode of life at that time was in all respects 
quite primitive. Lamps were almost unknown. Houses were 



202 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1789 



^y^ ^y 



lighted by tallow candles ; the streets of large towns were lighted 
with dim lanterns. Wood was the sole fuel for heating and cook- 
ing. Manufactures were few and coarse in quality. Machine-shops 
were unknown. The blacksmith's anvil and forge were found here 
and there. Water-power was scarcely utilized except in saw-mills 
for sawing boards and in grist-mills for grinding corn and rye. 
Planing-machines were unknown. Such a thing as a cotton factory 
or a woolen mill did not exist in the whole land. Wool and flax 
were prepared and spun at home and woven into cloth for garments 
for men, women, and children. In the South cotton was raised in 
small quantities to be carded, spun, and woven by hand. 

393. Country Life. — Agriculture was the principal industry for the 
people. The farmer produced almost everything that he needed. 
Once a year the shoemaker would visit each family, stopping long 

^ enough to make up the year's sup- 
/-^/'^ ply of shoes and boots. The tailor 
'^^J^^A in like manner went from house to 
^v^ house to make the necessary gar- 
ments for the family. Ploughs, 
wagons* and sleds were of home 
manufacture. Hunting, trapping, 
and fishing were the chief sources 
of animal food. Leathern breeches 
were not uncommon among mechan- 
ics and farmers. 

394. Slaves. — Slaves were still 
found in every State except Massa- 
chusetts. Nearly one-sixth of the 
entire population was slave, of which 
about seven-eighths were in Maryland, Virginia, and the two Caro- 
linas. These were largely employed in raising tobacco, indigo, 
and rice. 

395. Commerce. — The small population was scattered over a large 
territory. There were but few large towns. The greater number of 
the people lived on their farms. Considerable coasting trade was 
carried on, especially between the North and the South. Commerce 
with foreign nations was limited. Rice, cotton, indigo, and tobacco 
were exported. Manufactured goods of all kinds were imported. 




Eli Whitney. 



1792] 



POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. 



203 




396. Cotton. — At about this time a great change took place in 
the production of cotton and cotton goods. Throughout the South- 
ern States cotton was easily grown, but the process of separating the 
fibre from the seed was difficult and expensive. It was a slow work, 
performed only by hand, a common laborer being able to separate 
only a pound or two a day. 

397. Cotton-Gin. — In 1792 Eli Whitney, a native of Massachusetts, 
just graduated from Yale College, went to Georgia as a teacher. 
He lived with the family 
of the widow of General 
Nathaniel Greene (H 355). 
One day Mrs. Greene 
asked him if he could not 
invent a machine which 
would separate the cotton- 
seed from the fibre. He The cotton-Gin. 

turned his attention to the problem, and for some months was earn- 
estly engaged in perfecting his invention. The machine was a sim- 
ple one, and was soon adopted wherever cotton was raised. 

398. Its Effects. — The increase in the production of cotton from 
this cause was enormous. In 1792 the entire South exported less 
than one hundred and fifty thousand pounds. Three years later six 
million pounds were exported. In 1900 the exportation was about 
six million bales, of four hundred and ninety pounds each. This 
single invention has exerted an immense influence upon the whole 
history and prosperity of this country. It is estimated that for the 
year ending June 30, 1900, raw cotton was exported from the United 
States to the value of nearly three hundred million dollars. 

399. Cities. — The great increase in manufactures of all kinds has 
of late tended to the growth of cities and large towns. In 1790, 
however, the cities were few and small. The largest cities at that 
time were Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. Only 
one of these had a population of thirty-five thousand souls. The 
entire population of all the cities at that date was only about three 
per cent of the whole country. To-day the population of the cities 
of this country is more than one-fourth of the whole. 




George Washington. 

^From a painting by Gilbert Stuart in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.1 



1789] 



WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATIONS. 



205 



CHAPTER LV. 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 1789-1797. 



400. The President. — The new Constitution having been adopted 
by the requisite number of States, Congress appointed the first 
Wednesday in January, 1789, as the day for electing presidential 
electors, and voted that on the first 
Wednesday in February these electors 
in the several States should choose a 
president. It was also voted that on 
the first Wednesday in March the 
President should take his seat at New 
York and operations begin under the 
Constitution. George Washington was 
elected the first President by a unani- 
mous vote of all the electors. John 
Adams was elected Vice-President. 
Senators and representatives were ap- 
pointed from eleven States, and, these 
having met in New York, the new gov- 
ernment was put in operation. North 
Carolina soon after ratified the Consti- 
tution, and the next year its adoption 
by Rhode Island brought all the States 
once more together. 

401. The Cabinet. — At this time the 
people had not yet crystallized into po- 
litical parties. Washington appointed 
Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Foreign 
Affairs (now called Secretary of State); 
Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the 
Trea^ry ; Henry Knox, Secretary of 
War ; and Edmund Randolph, Attorney-General. These four officers 
at that time constituted the President's cabinet. The first Post- 
master-General was Samuel Osgood, who was soon succeeded by 



George Washington, the son of 
Augustine and Mary Wasliiugton, was 
born at Bridge's Creek, Westmoreland 
County, Virginia, February 22d, 1732, 
N. S. His great-grandfather, John 
Washington, a loyalist, emigrated to 
Virginia during the Commonwealth. 

At'ter the close of the French and 
Indian War Washington resigned his 
position in the army, and, returning to 
his plantation, spent most of his time 
in the direction of its affairs. He was 
repeatedly elected to the legislature of 
Virginia; and although he was very 
quiet, scarcely ever making a speech, 
he was highly respected by all, even 
the radicals, and his opinions carried 
great weight. His first real experience 
in the command of large forces was ob- 
tained in Cambridge. From thi ; time 
to the close of the war the life of Wash- 
ington is the history of his countrj'. 

After the army was disbanded, the 
troops, much dissatisfied with their 
treatment, desired to form a new gov- 
ernment, making Washington their 
king. He refused this proposal with 
scorn, and again went home to Mount 
Vernon. Here he quietly remained, 
though keeping in touch with every 
movement, until he was elected a del- 
egate to the Federal Convention in 
1787. No one thought of electing any 
other than Washington to the Presi- 
dency, and in 1789 he was, as with one 
voice, chosen the first President of the 
United States. 



206 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1790-1796 



Timothy Pickering. The Supreme Court of the United States 
was estabHshed and its judges appointed. Congress also voted to 
organize the United States circuit courts and district courts. Twelve 
amendments to the Constitution were proposed by Congress, and 

ten of them were ratified by three- 
fourths of the States and thus became 
a part of the Constitution. 

402. The New Capital. — During 
Washington's administration three new 
States were admitted ; namely, Ver- 
mont, March 4th, 1791, Kentucky, 
June 1st, 1792, and Tennessee, Jun,e 
1st, 1796. In 1790 the national capital 
was fixed for ten years at Philadelphia, 
and it was voted that at the expiration 
of that time it should be placed at a 
new city, to be built on the Potomac 
and named Washington in honor of the 
first President. Among the important 
acts of Congress during Washington's 
first term may be mentioned the estab- 
lishment of a national bank and United 
States mint, at Philadelphia, in 1792. 

403. Two Parties. — During this term 
two political parties were formed. They 
were soon called the Federal and 
the Republican parties. Jefferson and 
Randolph became the Republican lead- 
ers, and Hamilton and Knox the Fed- 
eralist leaders. Both parties, of course, 
desired the best possible government, 
but the Federalists believed this could 

be obtained by a strong national power, while the Republicans were 
in favor of large State rights. In other words, the Federalists wished 
to have the larger powers granted to the national government and 
the smaller powers to the State governments, while the Republicans 
desired exactly the reverse. The Federalists were more numerous 
at the North and the Republicans at the South. 



The Inauguration. — As soon as 
Congress had counted the votes of the 
electors of President and Vice-Presi- 
dent, information was sent to General 
Washington, at his home at Mount 
Vernon. The messenger arrived April 
i4tli, 1789: and two days later the first 
President-elect set out for New York, 
where Congress was in session. This 
journey occupied several days, and took 
the form of a triumphal jirocession. At 
every village and town through which 
he passed, the people thronged the 
streets, scattered flowers in his way, 
and greeted him with expressions of 
great joy and attachment At Trenton, 
the site of Washington's great victory, 
a triumphal arch was erected, covered 
with decorations, bearing the words, 
■' The Defender of the Mothers will be 
the Protector of the Daughters." 

The inauguration took place at New 
York, on Thursday, the thirtieth of 
April, 1789, at the old Federal Hall. 
From its balcony, in sight of a vast con- 
course of people, Washington took the 
oath of office, and was enthusiastically 
cheered by the multitude. " He was 
dressed in a complete suit of dark brown 
broadcloth, of American production, 
long white silk stockings, silver shoe- 
buckles upon his polished shoes, a 
steel-hilted dress-sword, and his hair 
dressed and powdered and gathered 
in a bag." After the ceremony, the 
President delivered his inaugural ad- 
dress in the Senate-chamber, attended 
divine service at Saint Paul's Church, 
and in the evening witnessed the illu- 
mination of the town. 



1790] 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 



207 



Vermont, " the Green Mountain 
State," was first explored by Cliain- 
plain in 1609, but was not permanently 
settled until 1724. Its territory was 
claimed by both New York and New 
Hampshire. The Continental Con- 
gress failed to grant it admission as a 
State, because of this dispute, but in 
1789 New York gave up its claim. 
During the War for Independence, 
Vermont served as loyally as though ] 
she had been one of the thirteen col- 
onies. The battles of Bennington, 
Crown Point, and Ticonderoga were 
fought largely by Green Mountain 
boys. The present population of Ver- 
mont is about a third of a million. Its 
chief industry is agriculture, though it 
is better known from the quantities of 
beautiful marble which it produces. 



404. Slavery. — In February, 1790, during Washington's first 
administration, a petition was presented to Congress asking that 
measures be adopted looking toward the ultimate abolition of Afri- 
can slavery throughout the country. 
This petition was headed by no less a 
person than Dr. Franklin. He was then 
a venerable man, eighty-four years of 
age, and this was but two months be- 
fore his death. After a full discussion, 
Congress voted that the question of 
slavery was entirely within the control 
of the several States, and that the 
Federal government had no authority 
to emancipate the slaves in any State. 

405. Northwest Territory. — The fa- 
mous ordinance of 1787, for governing 
the territory northwest of the Ohio, 
contained a stipulation that hereafter, 
forever, there should be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in 
that territory except as a punishment for crime. Religion, moral- 
ity, and knowledge being necessary to good government, schools 

and the means of education shall for- 
ever be encouraged. This territory 
included the present States of Ohio, 
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, 
and about one third of Minnesota. 

406. The Indians. — The Northwest 
Territory, especially that part which 
is now the State of Ohio, was rapidly 
filling up with settlers from the East. 
These settlers were seriously annoyed 
by frequent incursions of the Indians. 
A strong expedition was sent out 
against them in the fall of 1790, un- 
der command of General Harmer. He 
burned several Indian towns, but having been defeated in two 
battles he was removed from command. The next year General 
St. Clair was overpowered and defeated by the Indians with great 



The word "Kentucky" is of In- 
dian derivation, and means, according 
to most authorities, "the dark and 
bloody ground." It received this name 
because of the many fierce Indian con- 
flicts which took place there Its pop- 
ular name is the " Blue-grass State." 
Kentucky was originally a part of the 
Territory of Virginia, but, at its own 
request, was made a separate State. 
Daniel Boone, the famous adventurer 
and hunter, led the first exploring 
party into this region in 1769, forming 
the first settlement, at what is now 
Harrodsburg, in 1774. Kentucky pro- 
duces more tobacco than any other 
State. Its population is over two mil- 
lions. 



2o8 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1789-1794 



loss. These Indians were the Miamis, and they refused to make 
peace. Finally General Anthony Wayne (f 330) was sent against 
them, and utterly defeated them in a 
bloody battle in November, 1794. He 
then laid waste their country, and the 
next year peace was made with them. 

407. Congresses. — The representa- 
tives in Congress are elected for two 
years; hence two years constitutes 
what is termed one Congress. The 
First Congress, therefore, including 
its two sessions, extended from March 
4th, 1789, to March 4th, 1791. The 
Second Congress, from 1791 to 1793, 
completed Washington's first term as 
President. It was during the first 
term of the Second Congress — that 
is, in October, 1791 — that an act 
was passed providing for the organi- 
zation and discipline of the militia 
of the several States. 



The State of Tennessee was a part 
of that section of New France which 
the English obtained in 1763. North 
Carolina claimed the territory, as the 
Carolina charter granted land west to 
the South Sea. In 1769 the first real 
migration into western North Carolina 
took place, and in 1784 North Carolina 
ceded the portion of the State west of 
the mountains to the Union, but the 
cession was not accepted. The set- 
tlers, under the lead of John Sevier, 
formed a State to which the name of 
Franklin was given. After a few years, 
the State government was abandoned, 
and in 1790 a new cession was made 
by North Carolina, and the old State 
of Franklin was made a part of the 
southwest territory. The ''Volunteer 
State" has, for the most part, given its 
attention to agriculture, but of late it 
has been found to contain vast stores 
of coal and iron Within twenty years, 
its manufacturing industries have grown 
immensely, and its population has in- 
creased rapidly, being over two mil- 
lions at the present time. 



408. The Whiskey Insurrection. — 

From 1792 to 1794 occurred what 
was called "The Whiskey Insurrec- 
tion " in Pennsylvania. The people 
in the western part of the State 
had openly resisted the collection 
of a tax on distilled spirits. Wash- 
ington sent General Henry Lee, 
the famous "Light Horse Harry," 
with a force of fifteen thousand 
militia-men, against them. At this 
the insurgents became alarmed, and 
dispersed. This was the end of 
that famous insurrection. 

409. The Second Term.— The sec- 
ond presidential election occurred 

in the fall of 1792, and Washington was unanimously re-elected 




Oaniel Boone. 

<From a painting by T. Sully.) 



I792-I793] 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 



209 



President, and John Adams was re-elected Vice-President. Jeffer- 
son was continued by Washington as Secretary of State; Hamilton, 
Secretary of the Treasury; Knox, 
Secretary of War; Randolph, Attorney- 
General; and Pickering, Postmaster- 
General. Hamilton had displayed 
great financial ability in organizing 
the treasury department on a basis 
which has been substantially continued 
to the present time. Jefferson, how- 
ever, who had now become the leader 
of the Republicans, opposed Hamil- 
ton's funding system, his United 
States Bank, and other financial 
measures. 

410. France. — -The French Revolu- 
tion and the wars which grew out of 
it had an important bearing on the 
politics of the United States. During 
this revolution in 1793 the French 
executed their king, Louis XVI. Eng- 
land, Spain, and Holland declared war 
against France. France had aided this 
country with troops, ships of war, and 
money during the Revolution. There 
was therefore among the people a 
strong desire to aid France in her 
conflict against the three nations. 
Washington and Hamilton deemed it 
the part of wisdom to observe strict neutrality. Jefferson was 
in favor of extending the aid of our army to France. These 
differences in Washington's cabinet occasioned much stormy dis- 
cussion and great political excitement throughout the country. 
The natural antagonism between the Federalist and Republican 
parties was greatly increased by the discussions over the French 
question. Washington's cabinet was unable to remain composed 
of members of different parties. Jefferson at the close of the year 
1793 resigned his position in the cabinet, but Hamilton remained 

14 



Alexander Hamilton was one of the 

most efficient founders of the Republic. 
As a leader of the Federalist party, and 
with firm faith in a strong national 
government, he made use of his oppor- 
tunity as Secretary of the Treasury to 
place the finances of the young nation 
on a firm basis. To him, more than 
to any other, is due the stability of 
the government, its honorable dealings 
with its creditors, and the business-like 
methods of conducting its finances. 

Mr. Hamilton was but nineteen 
when he took up the cause of the 
colonies, but he immediately won rec- 
ognition, and in 1777 was made aide- 
de-camp to General Washington. After 
the surrender at Yorktown, he studied 
law, was chosen a member of Congress, 
and in 1787 took a leading part in the 
Federal Convention. The Constitu- 
tion, as finally proposed, did not in all 
respects please him, but he accepted it 
as the best attainable, and his able arti- 
cles in the " Federalist " did much to 
bring about its ratification. 

He remained in Washington's cabi- 
net until he had accomplished his plans 
with regard to the finances, and then re- 
signed. Later, he held a high position 
in the army, and apparently had a long 
and prosperous life before him He 
was wounded in a duel with Aaron 
Burr, then Vice-President, and died 
July 12th, 1804. The national indigna- 
tion at the death of Hamilton did much 
to put an end to the use of the duel as 
a means of settling personal enmities. 



2IO 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1795 



until the end of January, 1795, when he too resigned and resumed 
his practice at the bar. 

411. England. — ^ The British troops still continued to hold pos- 
session of the forts on Lake Erie and vicinity, in disregard of the 
treaty of 1783, and the British government seemed indisposed to 
withdraw their forces from our territory. American merchant ves- 
sels on their way to foreign ports were seized, and seamen forcibly 

taken from them. In 
consequence of these 
and other acts of the 
British, the public feel- 
ing in the United States 
was bitter toward Eng- 
land, and many leading 
statesmen favored a dec- 
laration of war. 

412. Jay's Treaty. — 
John Jay, a discreet and 
able statesman, who was 
one of the commis- 
sioners to negotiate the 
treaty of peace in 1783 
(U 368), and whom Wash- 
ington had made Chief 
Justice of the United 
States, was sent to Eng- 
land as a special envoy. 
He succeeded in nego- 
tiating a treaty called 
the treaty of 1795, by which war was prevented, and the honor of 
our government maintained. In some quarters, however, there was 
bitter opposition to this treaty. The most important criticism was 
its failure to restrict the British claim of the right of "search and 
impressment" (11430). An important treaty was negotiated with 
Spain, fixing boundaries between the Spanish possessions and the 
United States. Spain granted to our country the right to navi- 
gate the Mississippi, and provided that New Orleans should be a 
port of deposit for our Western States, 




Alexander Hamilton. 



1796-1797] Washington's administrations. 



211 



413. Third Term. 
to a close. The 
was very general that he 
should continue President 
during a third term, but 
Washington persistently 
refused, and John Adams, 
who for eight years had 
been Vice-President, and 
who was a pronounced 
Federalist, was elected 
to succeed him. Jeffer- 
son was elected Vice- 
President. 

414. Farewell Address. — 
Washington now retired to 
private life. His career 
as soldier, in command of 
our armies, and as the 
chief executive of the 



— Washington's second term was now drawing 
desire 



John Jay, one of the most impor- 
tant of the Revolutionary statesmen, 
was born December 12th, 1745. He 
took an active part in the earliest pro- 
ceedings leading to the War for In- 
dependence, being a delegate to the 
Continental Congress in 1774, and be- 
ing chosen to draw up the " Address 
to the People of Great Britain." Mr. 
Jay prepared also the first Constitution 
of the State of New York, and was 
later elected President of Congress. 
He was one of the negotiators of the 
Treaty of Peace of 1782-83, and was 
afterwards again returned to Congress. 
In 1789, President Washington ap- 
pointed him Chief Justice of the 
Supreme Court. In 1792, he resigned 
this position, and two years later nego- 
tiated a treaty with Great Britain. Mr. 
Jay served two terms as Governor of 
New York. After 1801 he refused al! 
public offices, and died May 17th, 1829. 




John Jay. 

nation, had been long and useful, and 
reflected the highest credit upon him. 
On his retirement he issued his famous 
farewell address, — a document of rare 
merit, exhibiting the highest states- 
manship, and filled with sentiments of 
the most exalted patriotism (Appen- 
dix D). It should be read by every 
pupil in the schools who studies the 
history of our country. 

The eight years of Washington's 
administrations covered a period of 
increasing prosperity to the United 
States. The finances of the country 
were no longer embarrassed. The new 
republic had won wholesome respect 
abroad, and new life had been infused 



into every department of industry. 



2ia 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION, 



[1797 



CHAPTER LVI. 



THE FEDERALISTS AND FRANCE, 1797.1801. 



415. The Second President. — John Adams was inaugurated the 
second President of the United States on the 4th of March, 1797, at 
Philadelphia. The two houses of Congress and a great concourse 
of people witnessed the imposing ceremony. The whole country 

was rapidly cominsf into 

K-^^^"/"^' ' .-f- ' .i "^^^^^^^SL ^ condition of great pros- 
"^^^"^^ ^ -> ^^^^^^^^H perity. The national 

^ ^ '^^^^^^9 debt had been funded, 

"^•^^'^^^^B and a considerable part 
..-au ^^ ^^ .^ j^^^ already been 

paid. Provision had 
been made for the grad- 
ual payment of what re- 
mained, and the revenue 
was ample. The Indians 
had been pacified, and 
war with P^ngland had 
been averted. The agri- 
cultural interests of the 
country were flourish- 
ing, and commerce was 
rapidly increasing. 

416. Foreign Relations. 
— Only in one direction 
was difficulty to be ap- 
prehended. The treaty 
which Jay had made 
with England prevented war between us and that country, but the 
treaty was unpopular with our people, and nearly caused a war with 
France. The French government ordered the American minister 
to leave the country. French cruisers roamed the seas and cap 
tured, it was estimated, as many as a thousand American vessels. 




John Adams, 

(From a paintini; by G. Stuart). 



1797-1799] 



THE FEDERALISTS AND FRANCE. 



213 



John Adams was born in Braintree 
(now Quincy), Massaclnisetts, October 
3otli, 1735, N. S. He belonged to an 
old Puritan family, his ancestors hav- 
ing immigrated to New England in 
1632. He held an honorable position 
as a lawyer up to the culmination of the 
troubles with Great Britain. Attempts 
were made to win him over to the royal 
side, but h's patriotism and honor were 
above all bribes of position and courtly 
favor. The Bay Colony sent Adams as 
one of its delegates to the Continental 
Congress in 1774, and again in 1775, in 
which he took a prominent part. In 
1777 he was sent a-^ ambassador to 
France, and for ten years he spent most 
of his time abroad in the service if his 
country. In 1787 he received a cordial 
welcome home, and v\as soon elected 
Vice-President of the United States. 
He became the natural leader of the 
Federalist party, and was elected Presi- 
dent in 1796. 



417. Commission to France. — President Adams was desirous of 
avoiding a war with France, a^d sent a special commission of three 

envoys to that country. These were 
John Marshall of Virginia, afterwards 
Chief Justice of the United States 
Supreme Court, Charles Cotesworth 
Pinckney of South Carolina, and K\- 
bridge Gerry of Massachusetts. M. 
Talleyrand was the French minister 
of foreign affairs. He refused to treat 
with the envoys, but through other 
parties it was intimated to them that 
if they would pay to the French gov- 
ernment a quarter of a million dollars, 
they would be officially received, and 
all matters in dispute would be speed- 
ily settled. Pinckney at* once replied 
in a spirited manner, *' Millions for 
defence, but not one cent for tribute." 
This soon became a popular motto throughout the country. 

418. Warlike Conditions. — The 
French government soon 
Pinckney and Marshall to leave 
France. Mr. Gerry remained, but 
effected nothing. Our army v/as 
increased, a naval armament | 
pared, and the Department of 
Navy was established. Washin* 1 
was appointed commander-in-chief 
of our forces. In reality a state of 
war existed, although war had not 
been declared. American war ves- 
sels were fitted out to capture the 
French privateers. In 1799 Napo- 
leon Bonaparte became First Consul 
of France, thus taking the control 
of the government, and the next year a treaty was negotiated, 
and peace was restored. 



ordered | ^' ' '^^"" ^' ' 




Chief Justice John Marshall. 

(After a painting by Henry Inman.) 



214 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1798 



419. Alien and Sedition Laws. — In 1798, while these complica- 
tions with France were existing, Congress passed two laws which 
became very unpoj^ular with the people, 
and did much to break down the ad- 
ministration and bring the party of 
Federalists into a decided minority. 
The Alien Law gave authority to the 
President to order any alien whom he 
should judge dangerous to the United 
States to leave the country. The 
Sedition Law gave authority for punish- 
ing by fine and imprisonment any 
person who should speak, write, or 
publish anything false or malicious 
against the government, the President, 
or Congress. These laws were opposed 
by large numbers of the people on 
the ground that they abridged personal 
liberty and freedom of speech, and 
therefore were unconstitutional. 

420. Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. 
— The legislatures of Kentucky and 

Virginia were intensely opposed to 
these laws. They passed resolutions 
asserting the doctrine that any State 
had a right to judge for itself how 
far the national authority should be 
considered binding. Here was the 
first official utterance of the doctrine 
that about thirty years later took 
the form of nullification (IT 470) in 
South Carolina under the leadership 
of John C. Calhoun, and thirty years 
after that, under the name of seces- 
sion (IF 535), plunged the country into 
a civil war of greater proportion and 

more gigantic destruction to life and property than any the world 

had ever seen. 



John Marshall, Chief Justice of 
the United States, was born September 
24th, 1755, in Virginia. In early life 
he spent five years in the Revolution- 
ary army, and then began the practice 
of law in his native county. He grad- 
ually rose in his profession, and was fre- 
quently a member of the Virginia legis- 
lature. In 1797 Mr. Marshall was sent 
as Envoy Extraordinary to France, and 
in 1800 he became Secretary of State 
under President Adams. In 1801 he 
was appointed Chief Justice of the 
United States, which position he held 
until his death, July 6th, 1835. 

Six men occupied the Presidential 
office, and eighteen Congresses enacted 
laws, during the period that Chief- 
Justice Marshall was at the head of the 
Judicial Department of the govern- 
ment. This position he filled with such 
wonderful ability that it has been said : 
" He was born to be the chief-justice 
of any country in which he lived." 
Judge Story says : "The Constitution, 
since its adoption, owes more to him 
than to any other single mind for its 
true interpretation and vindication." 



Mount Vernon.— President Wash- 
ington, though granted the highest civil 
and military honors, was remarkably 
fond of domestic life, and very glad to 
retire when freed from public duty. 
Mount Vernon was his home during all 
his married life, and here, where he had 
spent so many happy, quiet j'ears, he 
was laid at rest. The mansion-house is 
situated on the Potomac, about fifteen 
miles from the city of Washington, and 
occupies one of the most beautiful sites 
in that section of the country. The es- 
tate, on which Washington's home and 
his tomb stand, is now owned by a soci- 
ety of ladies, and every year thousands 
visit this memorial of the "Father of 
his Country." 



I799-I800] 



THE FEDERALISTS AND FRANCE. 



215 



421. Death of Washington. — In 1799 the nation was thrown into 
universal grief by the death of Washington, which occurred at 
Mount Vernon, on the 14th of December, in the sixty-eighth year 
of his age. As the successful leader of our armies during the great 
struggle for independence, and as for eight years the first President 
of the new nation, for his high moral character, dignified and 




Mount Vernon, 

gentlemanly conduct, judicious and conservative statesmanship, 
pure patriotism and philanthropy, he had justly won the title that 
was given him by all, "first in war, first in peace, and first in the 
hearts of his countrymen. " 

422. Presidential Election. — In the autumn of the year 1800 
occurred another presidential election. The Federalists had be- 
come very unpopular by means of the alien and sedition laws. 
John Adams was the candidate of the Federalists for re-election, 
and Thomas Jefferson was the candidate of the Republicans for 
President, and Aaron Burr for Vice-President. The Federalists 
were defeated ; and as Jefferson and Burr had an equal number of 
votes, the election, according to the Constitution as it then stood, 
was thrown into the House of Representatives. That body elected 
Jefferson President and Burr Vice-President. 



2l6 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1801 



CHAPTER LVII. 



THE REPUBLICANS AND ENGLAND. 1801-1809. 



423- Inauguration. — The inauguration of Thomas Jefferson in 
1801 as the third President of the United States was the result of 
the first political revolution. The Federalist party went out of 

power, and the Repub- 
licans assumed the gov- 
ernment. Mr. Jefferson 
kept strictly to the dem- 
ocratic principles of his 
party, and refused to al- 
low any display or cere- 
mony in taking the oath 
of ofifice. This was in 
striking contrast with 
the brilliant inaugura- 
tions of his predecessors, 
and has not been fol- 
lowed by his successors. 
The change of party was 
shown also in the ap- 
pointments to office and 
the removal of office- 
holders. Mr. Jefferson 
acted very moderately 
in this matter, and re- 
moved from office only 
those "who had used 
their official power for 
party purposes," or had been ajjpointed during the last days of 
President Adams's administration. 

424 Parties. — President Jefferson, instead of appearing before 
Congress, and addressing them, as Washington and Adams had 
done, sent in a written message. This custom has been followed 




Thomas Jeffe*-son. 

(After an engraving by Baron Desnoyers, Paris.) 



l802] 



THE REPUBLICANS AND ENGLAND. 



217 



by all his successors. In this message he announced what was to 
be the policy during his administration, and thus explained the 
principles of the Republican party. He proposed to strengthen 
the State governments, to restrict the Federal powers, and to limit 
the expenses of the Union to absolute necessities. Though a firm 
believer in his party principles, he was 
very careful to act so as not to increase 
the apprehensions of the opposition, 
but rather to bring them, as far as pos- 
sible, over into the Republican party. 

425. Louisiana. — One of the most 
important questions during this admin- 
istration was that with regard to. the 
Mississippi River. Spain owned the 
land on both sides of the mouth of 
the river and thus had the power to 
make the conditions under which the 
vessels of the United States might pass 
in or out. The Mississippi River, with 
its tributaries, was the great road for 
the traffic of nearly all the territory 
west of the Alleghanies. The North- 
west Territory was developing rapidly; 
the population. of the eastern portion 
had become sufficiently large to war- 
rant the admission of Ohio, which be- 
came the seventeenth member of the Union, February 19th, 1803. 
It seemed more than ever necessary that the United States should 
have some control over the mouth of the river, or at least have 
free access to the Gulf of Mexico. In the year 1802 word had 
come to President Jefferson that France had secretly purchased 
from Spain the province of Louisiana. This immense tract of 
nearly nine hundred thousand square miles extended from the 
Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of 
Mexico to the northern sources of the Mississippi and the Mis- 
souri. It was a portion of the Louisiana which France had been 
compelled to divide between England and Spain in the treaty of 
1763 (H 160). 



Thomas Jefferson was born April 
2d, 1743. His father, Peter Jefferson, 
was descended from one of the earliest 
settlers of Virginia. Jefferson was sent 
to school at an early age, entered Wil- 
liam and Mary College at the age of 
seventeen, and after graduation took 
up the study of the law. He was first 
chosen to the House of Burgesses in 
1768, and, like many other Virginians, 
was re-elected year after year. As a 
delegate to the General Congress, he 
was made chairman of the committee 
which drew up the famous Declaration 
of Independence, which was ahnost 
entirely his own work. This gave him 
the title of the "Framer of the Decla- 
ration." During the Revolution he 
served as Governor of Virginia. In 
1785 Jefferson was appointed to suc- 
ceed Franklin as minister Lo France. 
Here, although he did not actively 
participate, his advice was naturally 
sought by Lafayette and other leaders 
of the early part of the French Rev- 
olution. After returning home, he was 
made Secretary of State by Washing- 
ton, and later became Vice-President 
under Adams. 



2l8 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1803 



Ohio, the " Buckeye State," was 
originally held by the French, who es- 
tablished a chain of forts throughout 
the Northwest. The opposing claims 
of the French and the English were 
settled, when the French were driven 
from the continent in 1763, Virginia 
and Connecticut laid claim to a portion 
of the Northwest Territory, but they 
yielded their claims to the United 
States, reserving certain lands, which 
were afterwards sold for the benefit of 
the treasury of those States. The State 
ranks fourth in population, having more 
than four million inhabitants. The 
leading industry of Ohio has been 
agriculture, the most important prod- 
ucts being cereals, fruits, and wool. 
In manufactures it holds a high place, 
especially in the production of agri- 
cultural machinery. 



426. Louisiana Purchase. — -The territory had passed from the weak 
power of Spain into the hands of the powerful Napoleon, First 

Consul of France. The necessity of 

acquiring control of the mouth of the 
river was greater than ever. In Octo- 
ber, 1802, the Spanish commandant, 
who still held possession of the prov- 
ince, issued an edict which closed New 
Orleans to American vessels. Presi- 
dent Jefferson decided to buy, if possi- 
ble, the island of New Orleans, which 
was formed by two branches of the 
river, as it flowed into the Gulf. The 
United States would thus obtain con 
trol of the Mississippi. In 1803 he 
sent James Monroe (H 445) to assist 
Robert R. Livingston, then minister 
to France, in making this purchase. 
France was at the time hard pressed by its coming struggle with 
England; and Napoleon, desirous of obtaining funds for the war, 

offered the whole province of Loui- 
siana for fifteen million dollars. 
When he signed the treaty ceding 
the province to us, he said, " I have 
given to England a maritime rival 
that will sooner or later humble 
her pride. " President Jefferson sent 
to the Senate the treaty of purchase. 
The Senate duly ratified it, and 
Congress made the necessary ar- 
rangements for the payment of the 
money called for. 

427. Lewis and Clark. — Presi- 
dent Jefferson was far-seeing enough 
to realize the advantages that would 
accrue to the United States if her 
territory could extend to the Pacific Ocean. Even before the 
purchase of Louisiana he had begun preparations for an exploring 




Stephen Decatur. 

(From a painting by T. Sully.) 



1804-1806] THE REPUBLICANS AND ENGLAND. 



219 



expedition across the continent. This expedition set out in 1804, 
under the command of two army captains, Lewis and Clark, 
discovered the sources of the Missouri River, crossed the Rocky 
Mountains, and explored the Columbia River to its mouth. This 
exploration not only resulted in some very interesting discoveries, 
but also gave the United States one of its strong claims to the 
region called Oregon (H 485). 

428. War with Tripoli. — The only American war that occurred 
during Jefferson's administrations was the war with Tripoli. For 
more than a century the Barbary States, on the Mediterranean coast 
of Africa, had been the scourge of all 
civilized nations. The people were 
Mohammedans, and claimed the right 
to capture the vessels and enslave the 
men of all those Christian nations that 
did not purchase peace. The United 
States, as well as the nations of 
Europe, had paid these pirates their 
demands, and had been accustomed to 
suffer indignities from them that they 
would not have borne from any other 
people. In 1801 the United States 
refused to pay the tribute, and Amer- 
ican vessels became the prey of Tri- 
politan cruisers. A fleet was sent 
against the pirates, and for four years 
a naval war was kept up against 
Tripoli. Peace was made in 1805, 
whereby the annual tribute to Tripoli came to an end, and soon 
after the other Barbary States accepted similar terms. This 
war proved to be of value to the United States, not only in free- 
ing her from humiliation, but in raising her in the opinion of 
European nations, and in providing her with a stronger and better 
navy. 

429. European War. — England and France were continually at 
war during the early part of this century, and were thereby seriously 
injuring American commerce. In 1806 England ordered her vessels 
to blockade all the ports of those nations that had taken sides with 



Stephen Decatur —One incident 
in the war witli Tripoli made the name 
of Stephen Decatur, a lieutenant in 
the navy of the United States, famous. 
The American man-of-war, the " Philr 
adelphia," had run aground and been 
abandoned to the Tripolitans. Decatur 
took a small vessel, the "Intrepid,' 
which had been captured from the 'en- 
emy, and m the evening sailed up to 
the "Philadelphia," keeping the iden- 
tity of his vessel well concealed. Al- 
though the frigate was in the narbor, 
within the range of the Pripolitan guns, 
Decatur and his men leaped aboard, 
captured and set fire to the ship, and 
sailed out of the harbor. The guns fired 
upon them from all sides, but Decatur 
escaped without the loss of a man. 
Tripoli lost one of its most valuable 
prizes by a feat which earned for the 
lieutenant the well-merited promotion 
to the rank of Commodore in the 
American navy. 



220 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1807 



The "Chesapeake." — One inci- 
dent nearly brought on immediate war 
with Great Britain. The American na- 
val vessel, the " Chesapeake," had on 
board three seamen who had deserted 
from an English vessel, but all of whom 
were Americans by birth. On the 22d 
of June, 1807, a British ship, the 
"Leopard," demanded the surrender 
of these men, and, on being refused, 
fired upon the " Chesapeake," whicli 
was unprepared for the attack, and 
compelled her to strike her flag and 
allow a search to be made. 



France. Napoleon replied by issuing the " Berlin Decree," pro- 
hibiting all commerce with the British Isles, and declaring them to 
be in a state of blockade. The next year the British " Orders in 
Council " were issued, forbidding American vessels to enter any 
port of Europe except those of Great 
Britain and her ally, Sweden. The 
" Milan Decree " followed, in which 
Napoleon ordered the capture of any 
American vessel that had previously 
entered an English port. 

430. American Seamen. — The United 
States received great injury from these 
acts of the two leading nations of 
Europe, as her vessels were thus shut 
out of all European ports, unless they 
ran the blockade. The Americans had another cause of complaint 
in the claim that Great Britain made, of the right to stop any 
vessel, search il for sailors that had been British subjects, and 

force them into her service again. 
This was called the " right of search 
and impressment." If any seamen 
thus taken from American vessels 
were not British subjects, they had 
no opportunity to prove their claims. 
431. Embargo Act. — The people 
of the United States were not ready 
for war. Public meetings were held 
denouncing the outrage; but the 
government had little confidence in 
the new navy, and deemed it best 
to try some other method of pro- 
tecting American commerce. Late 
in the year 1807 Congress passed 
the Embargo Act, which forbade 
all vessels leaving or entering Amer- 
ican harbors, except for the coast 
trade. This act rested heavily upon the commercial portions of 
the country, and, in fact, was a serious injury, while it caused less 




Aaron Burr- 



(After the painting in Hist. Society Rooms Newark, N.J 
From a drawing by Rosenthal.) 



iSog-iSio] 



THE WAR OF 1812. 



221 



harm to English commerce, against which it was aimed. In 1809 
the Non-Intercourse Act was substituted in place of the Embargo 
Act. By this act England and France 
alone were forbidden intercourse with 
American ports. 

432. Presidential Elections. — At the 
close of Jefferson's fiist term the Re- 
publicans renominated him for Presi- 
dent, and associated with him George 
Clinton of New York in place of Burr. 
The Federalist candidates, Pinckney 
and King, were defeated by an over- 
whelming vote. The Twelfth Amend- 
ment had been made previous to this 
time, so that the electors voted sepa- 
rately for President and Vice-President, 
and a tie like that of 1800 would, in 
the future, be impossible. 

Caucuses of the members of Congress, 
representing each party, were held in 
1808; and in the Republican caucus 
James Madison of Virginia was nomi- 
nated for President, and George Clinton 
of New York for Vice-President. The Federalists renominated 
Pinckney and King, whose vote was larger than four years before, 
but still smaller than that received by Madison and Clinton. 



The Plot of Aaron Burr. — After 
the murder of Hamilton, Burr fled, and 
for a time remained in hiding. When 
he did return to civilization, he met 
with so cool a reception that he soon 
began scheming for some means of 
recovering his prestige. In 1806 he 
went across the Alleghanies, and was 
soon joined by men who were willing 
to unite in any scheme that might 
bring them wealth or power. For 
some time the plot seemed likely to 
be successful, but soon the authori- 
ties arrested the leaders, and the con- 
spiracy was at an end. It has never 
been fully known what Burr planned, 
but it is thought that he proposed to 
form a new nation out of the western 
territories and the Spanish provinces, 
and to put himself at its head. Though 
Burr was tried on a charge of high trea- 
son, no treasonable act could be proved 
against him, and he was set free. He 
afterward spent many years as an exile, 
and then returned to America and prac- 
tised law again. He was shunned by 
his neighbors, and when he died no ex- 
pressions of love or regret were heard. 



CHAPTER LVIII. 



THE WAR OF 1812. 



433. Foreign Affairs. — President Madison took the oath of office 
March 4th, 1809, and found foreign affairs in a very deplorable state. 
The Non-Intercourse Act had not proved beneficial to American 
commerce even in the eyes of its friends. It was repealed in 18 10, 



222 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[181I 



and an act was passed, proposing that, if either France or England 
should promise to cease injuring American commerce, non-inter- 
course would be declared with the other. The government received 
the impression from Napoleon that the Milan and the Berlin decrees 
were repealed, and it therefore forbade trade with Great Britain. 
For two years this state of things continued, during which President 
Madison and his cabinet did all in their power to avoid war, and yet 
.ot humiliate the country. 

434. Declaration of War. — The war spirit was rising, and especially 
in the West the demand for a war with Great Britain was unmistak- 
able. The Republican 
party had obtained new 
leaders in a number of 
young men who were 
coming rapidly to the 
front, and who were ear- 
nest in their desire for 
war. Henry Clay of 
Kentucky (H 513) was 
made Speaker of the 
House of Representa- 
tives in t8ii, and he 
was ably seconded by 
John C. Calhoun of 
South Carolina ("ir 472) 
and William H. Craw- 
ford of Georgia (IF 452). 

Two incidents oc- 
curred during the year 
181 1 which strengthened 
the hostility against 
England. Tecumseh, a 
chief of the Indians in 
the Northwest Territory, 
attempted to form a confederacy of all the Indians in the vicinity. 
His object was to resist the encroachments of the United States, 
and he received aid in his attempt from British agents. The In^ 
dians suddenly attacked General Harrison (IT 483) at Tippecanoe, 




James Madison. 

(From a painting by G. Stuart.) 



l8l2] 



THE WAR OF i8l2. 



223 



James Madison, the fourth Presi- 
dent, was another of the famous states- 
men belonging to the period of the 
Kevohition. On account of his leading 
influence in drafting the Constitution he 
has received the name of the " Father 
of the Constitution." Later, Madison, 
in his political beliefs, followed closely 
in the footsteps of Jefferson, but, unlike 
JeiTerson, always succeeded in keep- 
ing the friendship of his opponents. 
He was greatly opposed to the Alien 
and Sedition Laws, and, much to his 
disttess, his speeches and writings on 
the question were years afterward freely 
quoted by Calhoun and his followers 
as an authority for their doctrine of 
" Nullification." Madison was born in 
King George County, Virginia, March 
i6th, 1751, and died June 28th, 1836. 



but were completely defeated. Tecumseh soon after crossed the 
line into Canada, and entered the British service. 

The other incident recalled the unprovoked attack upon the 
" Chesapeake ' ' four years before. The British war-vessel, " Little 

Belt," fired upon an American frigate, 
*'The President," without cause, and 
was severely injured by the return fire. 
President Madison sent to Congress, 
June 1st, 18 12, a message which re- 
counted the grounds for war: (i) im- 
pressment of our seamen; (2) attacks 
upon American vessels; {3) injury to 
our commerce; and (4) tampering with 
the Indians. In response to this mes- 
sage Congress declared war against 
Great Britain, June 18th, 1812. 

435. Condition of the People. — The 
war party in Congress was composed 
of the larger portion of the Republican 
members. A small minority of them, together with the Federal- 
ists, were bitterly opposed. Most of 
the people in New England considered 
friendship with England necessary, and 
that the war would injure their section 
more than the rest of the country. 
Only indirectly was this true. But 
few battles occurred within the terri- 
tory of New England, though the war 
proved very disastrous to her com- 
merce. The Canadian border bore the 
brunt of the war, which for the most 
part was around the Great Lakes. The 
preparation that had been made was 
meagre indeed. Scarcely a dozen 
efficient vessels belonged to the Amer- 
ican navy, making but a small fleet 

compared with the powerful British navy, which consisted of more 
than a hundred heavy ships. The army was small, made up of 





NIAGARA RIVER . p 'I 


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^ ^ l^-^iQi ""''^"v^ 


\ 


^^''''''^''T ) ^^ 


>.^-'*^-"- 


^*--/ Y HEIGHTS^ 


^ 

/-^z 


>, Lundy"sLane|r foffl"* / 


/ J 1 




.rjt 


-WM 


\ 


-^ Fort Erie // 


30 
^Buffalo 


LAKE E a 1 E 


^ 



224 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION, 



[l8l2 



undisciplined men, with ignorant generals. Only great provocation 
could justify war under these considerations. 

436. Invasion of Canada. — The first plan of the government was 
to invade Canada. Accordingly, General William Hull, Governor 
ot the Territory of Michigan, crossed the river from Detroit, only 
to fall back upon the advance of General Brock. The British 
pressed after him, and were in the act of attacking Detroit when 
Hull surrendered, August i6th. Instead of injuring Canada, the 
Americans lost Michigan, without a gun being fired in her defence. 




The " Constitution " and " Guerriere." 



The second attempt to invade Canada was made from New York. 
A portion of the Ameriean army crossed the Niagara River, and 
won a victory at Queenstown Heights, but later was compelled 
to surrender because the rest of the soldiers refused to cross into 
Canada. During the year 1812 the American army met with con- 
stant defeat. 



x8i2-i8i3] 



THE WAR OF 1812. 



225 



437. Naval Victories. — Little had been expected from the navy at 
the beginning of the war; but brilliant naval victories more than 
offset the failures of the army. During the second half of the year 
1812 four of these exploits brought joy to the American people, and 
astonishment to England. August 19th Captain Hull, of the frigate 
"Constitution," fought for two hours with the "Guerriere," near 
Newfoundland, and completely wrecked the British frigate. The 
" Constitution " barely received injury, and lost but fourteen men 
against the enemy's eighty. 

In October the "Wasp" defeated the "Frolic" off the coast of 
North Carolina; and on boarding the defeated vessel, the Americans 
found but four men left, and three of these wounded. The capture 
of the "Macedonian" by the "United States," and of the "Java" 
by the "Constitution," rounded out the glorious record of the year 
Almost for the first time in her history England had been humili- 
ated on the ocean, and that, too, by vessels belonging to the 
weak navy of a young nation, from whom nothing of the kind 
was expected. 

438. The Navy in 1813. — The victories during the second year ot 
the war were not so one-sided. The American seamen had been 
in a condition of better discipline, 
while the British sailors had become 
careless because of their previous 
continuous successes. The British 
vessels were now ordered to keep 
within call of one another, and 
the officers were directed to enforce 
more careful discipline. 

The two most important naval 
exploits of this year were the loss 
of the " Chesapeake " and the cruise 
of the " Essex. " Captain Lawrence, 
of the " Chesapeake, " attacked the 
" Shannon " within sight of Boston, 
and her colors were not struck until 
Lawrence was mortally wounded. 
Captain Porter sailed the " Essex " into the Pacific Ocean, protected 
American vessels, and injured the British whaling industry. He 




Commodore 0. H Perry. 
(From a painting by J. W. Jarvis.) 



226 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1813-1814 



was blockaded in the harbor of Valparaiso by two British vessels, 
and was compelled to surrender. 

439. Around Lake Erie. — The victories of American vessels upon 
the ocean gave encouragement to the building of a fleet upon the 
Great Lakes. Early in the year, Captain Oliver H. Perry built 
a small fleet upon Lake Erie. September 10th, 1813, Perry, with 
nine vessels and fifty-four guns, attacked the British fleet, of six 
vessels and sixty-three guns, and defeated it. He announced: 
" We have met the enemy and they are ours, — two ships, two 
brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." 

By this victory the Americans obtained control of Lake Erie, 
and another attempt was made to invade Canada. General Harrison 
(IT 483) crossed the lake, attacked the British army at the river 

Thames, and com- 



pletely defeated it. 
In this battle the In- 
dian chief, Tecumseh, 
was killed. Michigan 
was recovered, and the 
war in the Northwest 
was brought to an end. 
440. On the Border. 
— Four engagements 
of importance oc- 
curred along the Ca- 
nadian border during 
the year 18 14. In 
July a fourth invasion 
of Canada was begun 
by an American army 
crossing the Niagara 
River. General Win- 
field Scott (IT 492) at- 
'tacked the enemy at 
a stream called the 
Chippewa, and drove them as far as Lake Ontario. The British, 
re-enforced, were again attacked at Lundy's Lane, and the battle 
lasted from sunset to midnight, when the British retreated with 




WASHINGTON 

AND 

BALTIMORE 



i8i4] 



THE WAR OF l8i2. 



227 



the loss of their commander. Two months later the Americans 
repelled a British attack upon Fort Erie. The assailing force 
was much larger than the American army at the fort, but the 
British were driven back beyond the Chippewa. These three vic- 
tories were of moral aid to the country, but bore no immediate 
gain. The army soon went into winter-quarters at Buffalo. 

An attempt was made by the British to invade New York by 
way of Lake Champlain and the Hudson River. Their fleet 
was met on the lake by Commodore MacDonough, in September, 
1 8 14, and, though the two fleets were nearly equal, the British 
were driven back with a loss of two hundred men and four vessels. 
This defeated the expedition and ended the war in the North. 

441. Burning of the Capitol. — The English fleet upon the Atlantic 
completely blockaded the principal seaports of the United States, 
and kept the coast in a condition of constant alarm. They attacked 
many of the smaller towns, and plun- 
dered and burned wherever they went. 
Admiral Cockburn took possession of 
the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay as 
his headquarters. In August, 18 14, 
General Ross landed in Maryland, and 
marched overland to the city of Wash- 
ington. The British captured the city, 
and disgracefully burned nearly all of 
the public buildings. They did not 
spare the Capitol, and some private 
buildings also were destroyed in the 
conflagration. From Washington the 
enemy sailed up the Chesapeake to 
attack Baltimore. They were resisted at Fort McHenry, and 
driven back with the loss of their commander. 

442. The Hartford Convention. — As has been before mentioned, 
the New England States had always opposed the war. When, in 
the latter part of the year 18 14, it seemed as if the war was a 
failure, that the government could not, and, as they thought, would 
not, protect New England, delegates from the five New England 
States met at Hartford *'to confer upon the subject of their public 
grievances. " After a short session these delegates reported, advis- 



"Star Spangled Banner " — The 

failure of the British to capture Fort 
McHenry inspired the writing of 
one of America's best-known national 
songs. Francis S. Key had, during 
the day before the battle, visited the 
British fleet, in order to negotiate for 
an exchange of prisoners. He was de- 
tained on the vessel, and spent the 
night while the enemy made the attack 
on the fort. With patriotic zeal, Mr. 
Key waited the result of the combat, 
and in the morning saw the flag still 
flying. On the spot, he wrote the 
" Star-Spangled Banner," which im- 
mediately became popular, and was 
soon sung, far and near, throughout 
the country. 



228 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1814-1815 



Louisiana was the first State to be 
formed out of the great province which 
Jefferson purchased from France in 
1803. It had been settled by the 
French, under D'Iberville, in 1700, 
near the present site of New Orleans. 
In 1804, the southern portion of the 
province was made into the territory 
of Orleans, the name being changed to 
Louisiana when it was made a State. 
The leading agricultural industries of 
the " Pelican State " are cotton, sugar, 
and rice. Manufactures have, of latt, 
been started in the State, while its pop- 
ulation has rapidly increased until it 
is nearly a million and a half. 



\ng amendments to the Constitution, among them one to restrict 

certain powers of Congress. Although this report was all that 

officially came from the Hartford Convention, it has been commonly 

believed that a dissolution of the Union was urged at this meeting. 

As the public was not admitted to its 

sessions, and as no general report of 

its discussions was ever published, this 

supposition could not be disproved. 

The delegates were politically ruined, 

and a death-blow was given to the 

Federalist party. 

443. Treaty of Peace. — No second 

session of the Hartford Convention 

was held, as a treaty of peace was 

concluded even during its session. 

December 24th, 1814, American and Brit- 
ish commissioners signed a treaty at 

Ghent, which was afterwards ratified by both nations. The issues 

which brought about the war were not settled by the treaty, and 

affairs seemed to be left about as they had been before the war. 

In fact, however, the war strengthened the position of the United 

States in the eyes of Europe, and 
England never again attempted to en- 
force her claim to the right of search 
and impressment. 

News of the treaty did not reach the 
United States until February of the 
next year. Meanwhile, January 8th, 
1815, a severe battle had been fought 
at New Orleans. General Andrew 
Jackson (IF 468) had fortified the city, 
and with six thousand men withstood a 

British force of twice that number, under Sir Edward Pakenham. 

The American victory was complete, Jackson losing less than 

twenty-five men, killed and wounded, while the enemy lost their 

leader and more than two thousand soldiers. 

444. Domestic Affairs. — Nearly the whole of Madison's two 

administrations was devoted to European affairs and the war with 



Indiana was the second of the 
States made out of the Northwest Ter- 
ritory. When Ohio was made a State, 
the rest of the territory was called Indi- 
ana, because of the Indian settlements 
within its borders. Like the other 
States in that section of the country, 
agriculture is the chief branch of indus- 
try, cereal productions holding the first 
rank. With a population of two and a 
half millions, the " Hoosier State" 
is one of the most prosperous in the 
Union. 



l8ll-l820] AN ERA OF GOOD FEELING. 2:29 

England. Few domestic matters of importance occupied the atten- 
tion of Congress. 

In 1811 an attempt was made to re-charter the National Bank 
(IT 409), but it was unsuccessful, and the bank was closed. Five 
years later another attempt fared better, and a charter was granted 
for twenty years. 

Two new States were admitted, — Louisiana, the eighteenth, 
April 30th, 1 81 2, and Indiana, the nineteenth, December nth, 
1816. 

President Madison was re-elected in 18 12, by a vote of 128 to 89 
for DeWitt Clinton of New York; Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts 
being chosen Vice-President. James Monroe and Daniel D, 
Tompkins were the Republican candidates in 18 16, and Monroe 
received a large majority over Rufus King, the candidate of the 
Federalists. 



CHAPTER LIX. 

AN ERA OF GOOD FEELING. 1817-1825. 

445. Monroe's Administrations. — James Monroe became President 
in 1817, a time when the United States was at peace with all the 
world. During his term of office the Federalist party ceased to 
exist, and all the people belonged to one party. In 1820 there was 
no opposition to the re-election of Monroe and Tompkins, and in 
the electoral college President Monroe received all the votes but 
one. These eight years were termed the "Era of Good Feeling." 

446. The Purchase of Florida. — In 18 18, General Andrew Jackson 
(IT 468) was sent to repel the invasion into Georgia by the Semi- 
nole Indians of Florida. The Spanish officials so persistently 
aided the Indians that Jackson exceeded his authority, invaded 
Florida, and seized the town of Pensacola. John Quincy Adams, 
the Secretary of State, entered into communication with Spain to 
settle this difficulty as well as the boundary dispute which had been 
pending since the purchase of Louisiana. These negotiations 
resulted in the purchase of Florida for the sum of five million 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1808-1820 




James Monroe. 



dollars. The treaty was signed by the commissioners in 1819, but 
was not finally ratified by the two governments until two years 
later. In this treaty the United States waived all right to the 

province of Texas (H 483), and Spain 
gave up her claims to any land on 
the Pacific coast north of the forty- 
second parallel. Thus was acquired 
another claim to the Oregon country 

(t 485). 

447. The Slavery Question. —The 
most important question that arose 
during Monroe's administrations was 
with regard to slave and free States. 
One by one the Northern States 
abolished slavery, so that before 
1808, when the foreign slave-trade 
was abolished, there were nine free 
States in the North and eight slave 

States in the South. By the admission of Louisiana and Indiana 

during Madison's term, the numbers 

were ten free and nine slave. The 

attempt was being made to keep the 

numbers equal in order that the Senate 

might be equally divided. Decem- 
ber loth, 18 17, Mississippi (slave) was 

admitted, and the numbers were equal. 

December 3d, 1818, Illinois (free), and 

December 14th, 18 19, Alabama (slave) 

were admitted to the Union. In 1820 

Maine and Missouri applied for ad- 
mission. The question arose at once 

whether slavery should be permitted in 

the proposed State of Missouri or not. 

Mainebecame a State March 15th, 1820. 
448 . The Missouri Compromise. — The 

South was very anxious to keep the 

equality in the Senate, which would be lost if both Maine and 

Missouri were made free States. The opposition to the extension 



James Monroe, the last President 
from the Revolutionary group of states- 
men, was born in Westmoreland 
County, Virginia, April 28th, 1758. 
Leaving his studies at William and 
Mary College at the outbreak of the 
war, he entered the Revolutionary 
army at the early age of eighteen. He 
served his State as member of the leg- 
islature, representative, senator, and 
finally as governor. He had much ex- 
perience in diplomatic service, being, 
at various times, minister to France, 
Spain, and England. 

As minister, perhaps his most im- 
portant work was the negotiation, with 
R. R. Livingston, for the purchase of 
the province of Louisiana. During 
Madison's administration, he was Sec- 
retary of State, and a part of the time 
also Secretary of War. Monroe was 
elected President in 18 16, and served 
two terms. He died July 4th, 183 1. 



1820-1822] 



AN ERA OF GOOD FEELING. 



231 



MississippL — The first settlement 
made in southern New France was in 
1699, at Biloxi, in what is now Missis- 
sippi. This region passed to the Eng- 
lish in 1763, and the larger part of it to 
the United States in 1783. The portion 
along the Gulf of Mexico was granted 
to Spain at the same time, and was for 
nearly forty years the cause of a dis- 
pute, which was not settled until the 
purchase of Florida. The *' Bayou 
State " contains an abundance of very 
fertile soil, a large portion of which is 
used in the production of cotton. More 
than a million and a half people live 
here, of which number one fourth are 
employed in farming. 



of slavery had become strong in the North, and many members of 
Congress hesitated to vote to increase the number of slave States. 

The people of Illinois strongly objected 
to the forming of the slave State of 
Missouri, as it lay to the west of them, 
and a portion of Illinois would then 
be nearly surrounded by slavery. After 
a long debate the famous Missouri Com- 
promise bill of 1 820 was passed (^ 513). 
This bill admitted Missouri as a slave 
State, while a statute was passed for- 
ever prohibiting slavery in the re- 
mainder of the Louisiana purchase, 
north of the parallel of 36° 30^ The 
result of this compromise was simply 
to postpone the settlement of the slavery question, and for thirty 
years (IF 521) no further trouble arose directly over the admission 
of free or slave States. Missouri be- 
came a State August loth, 1821. 

449. The Monroe Doctrine. — During 
the early part of this century the various 
Spanish colonies on the American con- 
tinent, influenced by the example of 
the United States, threw off the yoke 
of Spain, and, before 1822, had become 
independent States. Spain was unable 
alone to bring them back to their alle- 
giance, but attempted to prevail upon 
other European nations to aid her. 
President Monroe decided to make a 
protest that Europe should not inter- 
fere in American affairs. He sent a 
message to Congress, in which he said 
**that the American continents, by the 
free and independent condition which 
they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be 
considered as subjects for future colonization by any European 
powers," and that, in matters relating to America, "we could not 



Illinois, the third State in rank 
of population, was the third of the 
"Northwest" States to be admitted. 
In iSio the population of the territory 
was about twelve thousand, while, 
eighty years later, it was nearly four 
million. In 1900 its population was 
nearly five millions. The city of 
Chicago had, in 1830, a population of 
ten families, and in 1900, after a period 
of seventy years, it is the second 
city in the country, with over a mil- 
lion and a half inhabitants. Illinois 
is one of the great cereal-producing 
States, and possesses very rich soil 
throughout its whole extent. The man- 
ufacturing industries of the State rank 
well with any of the older States. The 
excellent location of Chicago makes it 
the centre of great commercial activity. 
The northern section of the State is 
more thickly covered with railroads 
than any other section of equal size in 
the world. 



232 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[i8i2-i8i6 



Alabama, a portion of the eastern 
half of the original Louisiana Province, 
was ceded to England in 1763. For a 
time included in the State of Georgia, 
it was afterwards ceded to the United 
States, and in 1802 became a part of 
the Territory of Mississippi. It was 
made a separate territory in 1817, when 
Mississippi became a State. Until 
within a few years, Alabama, or the 
" Cotton State," has devoted most of 
its attention to cotton and other agri- 
cultural products. Of late, however, 
it has begun to make use of its coal 
and iron mines, and to build up the 
manufacturing industries, for which it 
has great advantages. It is having a 
rapid growth, its population being 
nearly two millions. 



view any interposition by any European power in any other light 

than as a manifestation of an unfriendly disposition towards the 

United States. " He further added that 

we ''should consider any attempt on 

their part to extend their system to any 

portion of this hemisphere as dangerous 

to our peace and safety." This main 

idea had been suggested by President 

Jefferson many years before this time; 

but this was the first explicit statement 

of the proposition, and it therefore 

received the name of the " Monroe 

Doctrine." 

450. The Tariff auestion. — The War 

of 181 2, as well as the attack upon 

American commerce before the war, led 

to the formation of many manufacturing 

establishments. Inasmuch as manufactured goods could not be 

imported, it was necessary to make them at home, if possible. 

When the Treaty of Ghent brought 
peace and a revival of commerce, a 
vast quantity of manufactured goods 
was brought in from England. They 
were sold at such low prices that there 
was no sale for American manufac^ 
tures. A large number of petition<i 
began to pour in upon Congress, ask 
ing it to impose high duties upon such 
imported goods as were being or coul(i 
be produced in this country. It was 
hoped that if such duty was added tc 
the price of foreign goods, home prod^ 
ucts might be sold at a price that would 
furnish some profit to the manufacturer. 
451. Tariffs. —In 1816 a new tariff 



Maine. —The Popham colony was 
established at the mouth of the Kenne- 
bec, in 1607. Mason and Gorges pos- 
sessed the land from the Kennebec to 
the Merrimac in 1620. In 1639 Fer- 
dinando Gorges obtained a charter of 
Maine from Charles I. Under the 
name of Pemaquid, the territory be- 
longed later to the Duke of York, after- 
wards James I. After other changes, 
Maine was annexed to Massachusetts 
in 1691. The province suffered se- 
verely in the French wars, the Revolu- 
tion, and the War of 1812. March 15th, 
1820, with the permission of Massa- 
chusetts, Maine was made a separate 
State. The " Pine Tree State" is de- 
voted primarily to agriculture. Its 
fisheries are only exceeded in amount 
by Massachusetts. Its most unique 
production is the ice which is cut from 
its rivers. Its population is about 
seven hundred thousand. 



act was passed by Congress, placing a 
comparatively high duty upon cotton and woollen goods, as these 
were the most important of the new manufactures. This tariff did 



I 820-1 824] 



THE UNITED STATES OF 1825. 



233 



not prove as satisfactory as had been hoped. The importations of 
foreign goods was considerably reduced, but not enough to satisfy 

the American manufacturers. In 1820 

a bill laying a higher protective tariff 
lacked but one vote of becoming a law. 
In 1824 another, and this time a suc- 
cessful, attempt was made to furnish 
greater protection to home industries; 
and a new tariff was passed, increasing 
the duties on other goods as well as on 
cotton and woollen manufactures. 

452. Presidential Election. — At the 
close of President Monroe's term, as 
no parties existed, no party nomina- 
tions for the Presidential chair were 
made. Four candidates were in the 
field for the office, each selected by a circle of friends. When the 
election took place it was found that Andrew Jackson had received 
99 votes, John Quincy Adams 84, William H. Crawford 41, and 
Henry Clay 37. The election was, according to the Constitution, 
thrown into the House of Representatives, and a choice was made 
from the first three. Clay's friends gave their votes to Adams, and 
he was elected. John C. Calhoun (^ 472), of South Carolina, was 
chosen Vice-President. 



Missouri was the second State to be 
made out of the Louisiana purchase. 
When Louisiana was made a State in 
1812, the rest of the territory was organ- 
ized under the name of Missouri. The 
first settlement in the State was made 
at St. Genevieve, in 1700. St. Louis 
ranks fourth among the great cities 
of the country, with a population of 
over half a million, while the State 
ranks fifth, with a population of 
over three millions. The State ranks 
seventh in valuation, and at the head 
of the former slave States. Its indus- 
tries are very diversified, mining, agri- 
culture, manufacturing, and commerce 
each holding a high place, as compared 
with its sister States. 



CHAPTER LX. 



THE UNITED STATES OF 1825. 



453. Population. — During the thirty-five years between 1790 and 
1825 the population of the United States increased from less than 
four to about eleven millions. The business centres on the Atlantic 
coast had changed from small towns to cities of respectable size, and 
had lost the provincial character noticeable during the eighteenth 
century. The tide of migration was westward, and the centre of 
population, which in 1790 was east of the Chesapeake Bay, in 



234 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1825 



1825 had nearly reached the western extremity of Maryland. Each 
of the original thirteen States showed, in every census, a large 
growth in population ; but the new States and Territories west of 
the Alleghanies had made wonderful gains. 

454. Territory. — The area of the original thirteen colonies east 
of the Alleghanies was less than four hundred thousand square 
miles, and that of the original United States was but a little more 
than twice as large. By the purchase of Louisiana in 1803 the 
territory of the United States was more than doubled, and the pur- 
chase of Florida in 18 19 (IF 446) 
added nearly sixty thousand square 
miles. The territorial area of the 
country, therefore, had been ex- 
tended, during these thirty-five 
years, from about eight hundred 
thousand to nearly eighteen hundred 
thousand square miles. At the same 
time, the number of States com- 
prising the Union had increased 
from thirteen to twenty-four. 

455. Travel on Land. — The enor- 
mous increase of territorial limits 
had called attention to the great 
need of better means of transpor- 
tation. The subject of "rapid 
transit " began to interest states- 
men and inventors as well as mere travellers. Most of the 
journeys were usually made by land, and the necessity of better 
roads became apparent. Months were needed to make journeys 
which to-day can easily be accomplished in days. The United 
States government took no direct steps to improve the means of 
transportation except by building a national road. The intention 
was to connect the navigable portion of the Potomac River with the 
Ohio by means of a good road, of easy grade, well built, and with 
good bridges. The sum of a million dollars was spent during the 
administration of President Monroe upon the "Cumberland Road," 
which extended between Cumberland, Maryland, and Wheeling, Vir- 
ginia. Later, this road was extended into Indiana; but, with this 




Robert Fulton. 



i825] 



THE UNITED STATES OF 1825. 



235 




exception, the Federal government has left the matter of the build- 
ing of roads to the care of the States or of private corporations. 

456. Travel by Water. — Many attempts were made between 1788 
and 1807 to make use of steam as a means of propelling vessels. 
Robert Fulton was the 

first to make a successful 
public experiment of run- 
ning a steamboat. In 
1807 his little boat, with 
side paddle-wheels, began 
to make regular trips be- 
tween New York and Al- 
bany. These trips of the 
" Clermont " were so suc- 
cessful that other steam- 
boats were built ; and in 
1 8 14 the "Vesuvius " be- 
gan to make regular trips 
between Pittsburg and 
New Orleans. The " Sa- 
vannah" crossed the Atlantic in 1819, and in 1825 the "Enter- 
prise " steamed around the Cape of Good Hope to India. While 

the invention of the steamboat greatly 
aided transportation along the rivers, 
the travel across the land from one 
river to another was as difficult as ever. 
This was especially the case when the 
journey was from the Eastern to the 
Western States, where the roads over 
the Appalachian Mountains were so 
difficult. Attempts were made to pre- 
vail upon Congress to authorize the 
construction of canals across the moun- 
tains, but they were unsuccessful, and 
this improvement was also left to 
private or State enterprise. 

457. Agpriculture. — Farming was still the most important occu- 
pation in the United States. Wheat, flour, Indian corn, rye. 



" The Clermont." 



"Clinton's Big Ditch." — Many 
small canals were built in various sec- 
tions of the country, and in 1817 the 
immense task of connecting Lake Erie 
with the Hudson River was begun. 
This "Erie Canal" was built by the 
State of New York, and was not com- 
pleted until 1825. De Witt Clinton, 
the Governor of the State, was very 
energetic in this work, and those who 
opposed the building of the canal as 
impracticable used to speak of it as 
"Clinton's Big Ditch." The scheme 
was practicable, however, and nothing 
was more important in increasing the 
wealth and power of New York City 
than this canal, which furnishes an 
easy means of transportation from the 
Great Lakes to the Atlantic seaboard. 



236 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1S25 



beans, peas, potatoes, beef, tallow, and hides from the North, and 
rice, tobacco, indigo, and cotton from the South, were among the 
staple productions. The new West had taken the lead, and lacked 
only sufficient laborers to be able to furnish agricultural products 
for the whole world. Emigration from Europe, which had been very 
small between 1790 and 181 5, then began to increase, and about 
1820 two or three thousand emigrants yearly left Great Britain, 




A Western Emig^'-ant Train. 

Ireland, Germany, Switzerland, and France, for the New World, 
and its great agricultural territories. 

458. Manufactures. — During the period preceding the year 1825 
many American manufactures were started and put upon a firm ba- 
sis. The first cotton-mills were established in Beverly, Massachu- 
setts, and Pawtucket, Rhode Island, soon after the adoption of the 
Constitution. Mills in which cotton yarn was spun began to spring 
up in New England. The yarn was woven into cloth by hand. In 
181 3 a mill in Waltham, Massachusetts, was the first both to spin 



Emigrant trains. — From the east- 
ern States, emigrant caravans weekly 
crossed the mountains, e7i route for 
the West. These were covered wag- 
ons, in which the household goods 
were placed, as well as the women and 
children. The men would walk, or 
travel on horseback, driving sheep and 
cattle before them. These emigrants 
journeyed in large parties, and passed 
by the larger towns and more settled 
communities, constantly going farther 
and farther west, to the very frontiers. 
These pioneers were hardy settlers, and 
the Western States owe them much. 



1825] THE UNITED STATES OF 1825. 23) 

the cotton and weave it into cloth by power machinery. Woollen, 
leather, and iron manufactures ranked next in importance to cotton, 
and the amount of these staples produced in the United States was 
constantly increasing. Other smaller industries were beginning in 
New England and the Middle States, such as the manufacturing 
of hats, bonnets, and rope. The many falls in the New England 
rivers furnished ^ower for running machinery at slight expense, 
and aided very materially in establishing the infant manufactures. 

459. Protective Tariffs. — When, in 18 16, the first protective tariff 
act was enacted by Congress, many of the representatives from 
New England voted in opposition to it. The interests of the 
Eastern States had been almost wholly 
commercial, and they felt that such acts 
would seriously injure foreign trade. 
When this law had passed, and later 
that of 1824, New Englanders felt 
themselves compelled to turn their at- 
tention to manufacturing, and soon a 
large part of the manufactured goods 
of ordinary quality were produced in 
this country. The main reasons ad- 
vanced in favor of the protective tariff 
were that by means of it more employ- 
ment would be obtained for the people, and the mill employees 
would be able to purchase more farm products, and thus the gain 
would be mutual. Those opposed to the principle of protection 
to home industries would argue that unprofitable industries would 
be started; that without the protective tariff the country would 
produce naturally what was necessary and best; that the benefit 
would accrue to the manufacturers and not to the employees, to 
a section and not to the whole country. The whole question of a 
tariff for protection and a tariff for revenue only is still (1896) 
a live issue, and upon it party lines continue to be drawn. 

460. Education. — The first quarter of the nineteenth century 
was a period of growth in education and literature as well as in 
material prosperity. In New England schools were established in 
every town; and though the "schooling" was meagre as compared 
with that of the present day, it was in keeping with the conditions 



238 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1786-1800 



of the time. In the Middle States the development was later, and 
in the Southern States only the children of the wealthy land-owners 
received a fair amount of instruction. Among the new States in 
the West a beginning was being made in the establishment of an 
excellent system of education. Public lands were appropriated for 
educational purposes, and the revenue derived from their sale put 
the schools on a firm foundation. 

461. Religious Interests. — One of the most marked effects of the 
American Revolution and the establishment of the Republic was 
the growth of toleration. During the colonial period, except in 
Rhode Island and Pennsylvania, freedom in religious matters was 
almost unknown. When independence was fully established, one by 
one the different States relaxed and then repealed their intolerant 
laws until perfect freedom in worship was granted. With this ad- 
vance movement there came a revival of religious interest which 
spread over the whole country, and Christians of most opposite 
religious beliefs worked hand in hand for the advancement of right 
eousness and the Kingdom of Heaven on earth. 



CHRONOLOGY. 



1786. Annapolis Convention, September. 
Shays's Rebellion. 

1787. Northwest Territory organized. 
Constitution framed, September 17. 

1788. Constitution ratified by the ninth State, June 21. 

1789. Washington inaugurated President, April 30. 

1791. Establishment of the first Bank of the United States. 

1793. Invention of the cotton-gin. 

Laying of the corner-stone of the Capitol. 

1794. Victory of General Wayne, November 
Whiskey Insurrection. 

1795. Ratification of Jay's Treaty. 

1797. Adams inaugurated President, March 4. 

1798. Difficulties with France. 
Alien and sedition laws. 

1799. Death of Washington, December 14. 

1800. Congress meets at the new Capitol, 



I80I-1825] 



CHRONOLOGY. 



239 



1801. 

1803. 
1804. 
1805. 
1806. 



1807. 



1808. 
1809. 

1811. 

1812. 



1813. 



1814. 



1815. 
1816. 
1817. 
1818. 
1819. 
1823. 
1824. 
1825. 



Jefferson inaugurated President, March 4. 

War with Tripoli. 

Purchase of Louisiana, April 30. 

Lewis and Clark's expedition. 

Peace with Tripoli. 

Conspiracy of Burr. 

European blockade by Great Britain, May 16. 

Berlin decree, November 21. 

Chesapeake and Leopard, June. 

Trial trip of the Clermont. 

English orders in council 

Milan Decree, December 17. 

Embargo Act, December. 

Foreign slave-trade forbidden. 

Non-intercourse Act, February. 

Madison inaugurated President, March 4. 

President and Little Belt, May 16. 

Battle of Tippecanoe, November 7. 

Declaration of war, June 18. 

Surrender of Detroit, August 16. 

Constitution and Guerriere, August 19. 

Battle of Queenstown Heights, October 13. 

Wasp and Frolic, October 18. 

United States and Macedonian, October 25. 

Constitution and Java, December 29. 

Shannon and Chesapeake, June i. 

Battle of Lake Erie, September 10. 

Battle of the Thames, October 5. 

Battle of Chippewa, July 5. 

Battle of Lundy's Lane, July 25. 

Burning of Washington, August 25. 

Battle of Lake Champlain, September 11. 

Attack on Fort McHenry, September 13. 

Hartford Convention, December 15. 

Treaty of Ghent, December 24. 

Battle of New Orleans, January S. 

Charter of the second United States Bank. 

Monroe inaugurated President, March 4. 

Jackson captures Pensacola. 

Purchase of Florida. 

The " Monroe Doctrine." 

Protective tariff. 

Completion of the Erie Canal. 



'BlacfeboatJD anal^jsijs. 



Presidents 



/'J.Q.Adams 1825-1829 

Jackson 1829-1837, 

Van Buren 1837-1841 

Harrison and Tyler . . . 1841-1845 

Polk 1845-1849 

Taylor and Fillmore . . 1849-1853 

Pierce 1853-1857 

Buchanan 1857-1861 



Matters of Importance 



Growth. 

National Bank. 

Tariffs. 

Nullification. 

Treaties. 

Oregon. 

Texas. 

Mexico. 

I Growth. 
Sectional Divisions. 
Compromises. 
Party Issues. 
Secession. 



Lesser Affairs 



r Georgia Indians. 
Office-holders. 
Rebellions. 
Mormons. 
Gold Discovery. 
Temperance. 
Japan. 
Naturalization. 



Parties 



States 



' Democratic i797- 

Whig 1828-1853. 

Republican 1854- 

Free Soil 1 848-1 854. 

Anti-Mason 1833-1837. 

American 1853-1857. 

Arkansas 1836. 

Michigan 1837. 

Florida 1845. 

Texas 1845. 

Iowa 1846. 

1 Wisconsin 1848. 

C/iTFORNiA 1850. 

Minnesota 1858. 

Oregon 1859. 

[^Kansas 1861. 




SECTION X. 



THE NATION THREATENED. 1825-1861. 



CHAPTER LXI. 

JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 1825-1829. 



462. Indians in Georgia. — In 1802, when Georgia ceded portions 
of the future States of Alabama and Mississippi to the United 
States, the Federal govern- 
ment agreed to remove the 
Indians from the State of 
Georgia as fast as possible. 
Year by year land was bought 
of the Indians, until in 1824 
the Creeks and Cherokees 
refused to sell any more. In 
February, 1825, the Creeks 
were tricked into a sale of 
their lands, and an attempt 
was immediately made to 
take possession. President 
Adams ordered a delay, and 
early in 1826 a second treaty 
was made, whereby the 
Creeks sold their land, and 
agreed to emigrate to new 
homes beyond the Missis- 
sippi. The Cherokees were, a few years later, prevailed upon to 
do the same. The last of the tribe were forcibly removed to the 




John Quincy Adams. 

(After a painting by Healy, in the Corcoran Art Gallery, 
Washington, D. C.) 



242 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1826 



Indian Territory in 1838. During this controversy considerable 
ill-feeling occurred between Georgia and the United States govern- 
ment. Neither the actions of the State nor those of the United 
States in relation to the removal of these Indian tribes was 
creditable, but brought reproach upon our good name. 

463. New Parties. — The " Era of Good Feeling" ended with the 
inauguration of Adams. The President made Henry Clay his Sec- 
retary of State, and immediately the charge was made that Adams 

was repaying Clay for the votes which 
he had received from the friends of the 
latter. Two parties gradually arose, 
the friends of Adams and Clay forming 
one, and those of Jackson, Crawford, 
and Calhoun the other. The adminis- 
tration party, under the leadership of 
Clay, espoused the doctrine of protec- 
tive duties and national improvements, 
or, as it was called, the " American 
System." The complete name of the 
only existing party had been "Demo- 
cratic-Republican," and as the new 
parties were formed out of the old, the 
party which adopted the "American 
System " took the name " National 
Republican," and the opposition the 
name " Democratic. " 

464. Death of Adams and Jefferson. ~ 
July 4th, 1826, was commemorated as 
the semi-centennial of the adoption of 
the Declaration of Independence. The 
occasion was rendered more notable 
by the deaths on that day of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, 
both signers of the Declaration, and later Presidents of the Union 
they had helped to form. Each died, supposing that the other was 
alive, and Adams is reported to have said, " Thomas Jefferson still 
survives." 

465. The Tariff of 1828- — Another tariff act was passed during the 
year 1828, which was based on the idea of "protection to home 



John Quincy Adams was the old- 
est son of John Adams, the second 
President. He was born at Braintree, 
Massachusetts, July nth, 1767, and 
died February23d, 1848. He began his 
political life at a very early age, accom- 
panying Francis Dana, the ambassador 
to St. Petersburg, as secretary, when 
but fourteen. In 1803 Adams was 
elected to represent Massachusetts in 
the United States Senate, but was not 
returned in 1809, because he upheld 
Jefferson's Embargo Act, which was 
repugnant to his Federalist constitu- 
ents. He afterwards held many im- 
portant positions under Madison and 
Monroe, was chairman of the commit- 
tee to negotiate peace after the War of 
1S12, was minister to London, and Sec- 
retary of State. 

Two years after his Presidential 
term of office expired, he was elected 
to represent his district in the House 
of Representatives. This position he 
held during the remaining years of his 
life. Here he acted independently, 
considering it a "duty imposed upon 
him by his peculiar position," inasmuch 
as he " had spent the greatest portion 
of his life in the service of the whole 
nation, and had been honored with 
their highest trust." 



o 

00 
00 




1828-1829] NULLIFICATION. 243 

industries " even more fully than that of 1824. Enormous duties 
were laid on wool and hemp, and the tariff on lead, iron, and 
molasses was greatly increased. As different sections of the coun- 
try produced these articles, a combination was made, and the bill 
was passed, though unsatisfactory even to those who voted for it. 
The majority of the votes in favor were from the North, while 
Southern members opposed the bill. This act received the name 
of the "Tariff of Abominations." Five of the Southern States pro- 
tested against the passage of any kind of protective tariff law, and 
Calhoun, the Vice-President, suggested that South Carolina should 
declare the act "null and void " within her borders. 

466. Presidential Election. — Of the four Presidential candidates 
in 1824, Clay and Crawford had withdrawn, and the campaign in 
1828 was narrowed to the two leading contestants of the earlier 
election. The National Republican party nominated Adams for 
President, and Richard Rush of Pennsylvania for Vice-President. 
The candidates of the Democratic party were Jackson and Calhoun. 
When the electoral votes were counted, it was found that Jackson 
had received twice as many votes as Adams. 



CHAPTER LXII. 

NULLIFICATION AND THE UNITED STATES BANK. 1829-1837. 

467. Andrew Jackson. — Andrew Jackson took the oath of office 
as President of the United States, March 4th, 1829. For the first 
time in the history of the country the President was a man who had 
had no administrative experience. In 182S, in all but two of the 
States, the Presidential electors received the direct vote of the peo- 
ple, instead of being chosen by the State legislatures, as had before 
been the custom. The new President was a man of the people, and 
intended that the people should rule. For forty years the gov- 
ernment had been carried on with very few changes among the em- 
ployees in the various departments. Now Jackson's motto was 
" To the victor belong the spoils. " There had been previously five 
changes in the Presidential office, and in 1801 a new party even had 



244 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[ I 829-1 830 




Andrew Jackson. 



come into power; but in all these years only about one hundred and 
fifty office-holders had been removed. Before Congress met in 

December, 1829, Jackson had 
removed more than a thousand 
employees, and had filled the 
positions with men of little or 
no experience. A very serious 
injury was done to the business 
of the government; but by far 
the greatest evil came from the 
fact that the so-called " Spoils 
System " was inaugurated, and 
every President since Jackson 
has felt obliged to remove previ- 
ous office-holders in order to give 
their places to his own party 
workers. 
, ^ r. . . 468. Hayne and Webster. — 

(From a print in the Treasury Department, ^ 

wasiungton.D.c.) Durlug thc progrcss of a discus- 

sion in 1830 on the subject of the public 
lands a great debate took place between 
Senator Hayne of South Carolina and 
Senator Webster of Massachusetts. Sen- 
ator Hayne made a vigorous two days' 
speech, in which he defended nullifica- 
tion and the right of each State to de- 
cide for itself as to the constitutionality 
of any law which it chose to consider. 
In the course of his speech he cited 
early suggestions of nullification and 
secession, as the Virginia and Ken- 
tucky Resolutions, and the Hartford 
Convention. This speech was one of 
remarkable power and ability. Senator 
Webster, in a three days' reply, made a 
speech which to this day is considered 
one of the finest specimens of oratory to be found in our language. 
He declared for " liberty and union, now and forever, one and 



Andrew Jackson, next to Thomas 
Jefferson, is the hero of the Demo- 
cratic party. He was popularly called 
"Old Hickory," — an appellation which 
was appropriate, as it illustrated the 
firmness, even obstinacy, of his charac- 
ter. Jackson's father was a Scotchman, 
who died soon after Andrew's birth, 
which occurred March 15th, 1767, in 
one of the Carolinas, it is not certain 
which. After beginning the study of 
law, Jackson removed to Tennessee, 
where he held, though for a short time 
only, the successive positions of dis- 
trict solicitor, representative, senator, 
and Judge of the Supreme Court. He 
had the unusual good fortune of leav- 
ing the Presidency with a greater 
degree of popularity than he entered 
It. He spent the rest of his life in 
quiet seclusion at the Hermitage, near 
Nashville, and died June 8th, 1845 



i832] 



NULLIFICATION. 



245 



inseparable." Men with Webster's views would not peaceably 
permit any State to refuse to allow the laws of the United States 
to be carried into execution. 

469. Nullification. — The tariff question was uppermost in the 
minds of the people. During the summer of 1832 a tariff act was 
passed which was much more uniform 
than that of 1828, and in it the average 
rate of duties was much lower. Al- 
though this act made a reduction 
in the duties, and therefore did not 
bear so heavily on the South, it still 
maintained the principle of protection. 
It was this principle to which Cal- 
houn was opposed. South Carolina had 
elected Senator Hayne Governor, and 
Vice-President Calhoun resigned his 
position, and was elected to succeed 
Hayne in the Senate. He urged that 
the time had come for South Carolina 
to resort to nullification, and, accord- 
ingly, a convention was held at Charles- 
ton in November, 1832, which passed 
such an ordinance. This act declared 
the tariff acts null and void, forbade the payment of duties under 
them in that State, and threatened to withdraw from the Union if 
the Federal government should attempt to enforce these laws in 
South Carolina. 

470. A Compromise Tariff. — When Congress met in December, 1832, 
President Jackson, in his annual message, asked for special powers, 
in order that he might more surely enforce the laws. In accordance 
with these wishes a bill, commonly known as the " Force Bill, " was 
introduced, quickly passed, and became a law. At the same time 
Congress again turned its attention to the tariff question, and 
Henry Clay introduced a compromise measure. This bill provided 
that the tariff should be decreased regularly each alternate year, 
until in 1842 there should be a uniform duty of twenty per cent 
upon all imports. This bill abandoned the theory of protection, and 
«'as satisfactory to South Carolina. She repealed the " Nullification 



Daniel Webster, the "Defender 
of the Constitution," was born at 
Salisbury, New Hampshire, January 
18th, 1782. Teaching scliool during the 
winter months in order to obtain the 
necessary funds, Daniel made his way 
through Dartmouth College, and was 
graduated in iSoi. After being ad- 
mitted to the bar, he entered politics, 
and was at first Representative in Con- 
gress from N. H., then U. S. Senator 
from Mass. and Secretary of State. 

Henry Clay alone could dispute 
with Webster the position of leader 
of the Whig party, and each of them 
was grievously disappointed at failing 
to win the Presidency. Mr. Webster 
unsuccessfully sought the nomination 
Irom his party in 1S44 and again in 
1848. He lost popularity by his de- 
fence of the Compromise of 1850, and 
was again defeated in the contest for 
the nomination in 1852, but Mr. Web- 
ster will always hold a very high rank 
among the statesmen of his country. 



246 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1831-1831 



Act." The protectionists had, for the present, lost their ground; 
but, at the same time, South Carolina had failed to obtain support 
from any other State, in the " State Rights " theory that a State 
has the power to make void any law of the United States. 

471. Presidential Election. — The campaign preceding the election 
of 1832 was in some respects more interesting than any of its prede- 
cessors. A new party 
was in the field, and 
national nominating 
conventions were for the 
first time held. 

In December, 183 1, 
the National Republican 
Party nominated Henry 
Clay for President, and 
in May, 1832, another 
national convention of 
the same party adopted 
a set of resolutions, an- 
nouncing the principles 
of their party. This was 
the " first platform ever 
adopted by a national 
convention. " 

The Democratic Con- 
vention nominated Jack- 
son for a second term, 
and associated with him 
Martin Van Buren as 
the candidate for Vice 
President. South Carolina refused to uphold either of the regular 
candidates, and gave her vote to John Floyd of Virginia ; forty-nine 
electors voted for Clay, and two hundred and nineteen for Jackson. 
Van Buren was elected Vice-President. 

472. The United States Bank. — Early in the first administration 
of President Washington, Congress had passed an act granting a 
charter for a United States Bank. President Washington signed 
the bill, after having obtained the advice of two of his secretaries 




John C. Calhoun. 
(After a daguerreotype.) 



1832] 



NULLIFICATION. 



247 



on the question of its constitutionality, and having decided that 
Hamilton's arguments in its favor were stronger than those of 
Jefferson against it. In 18 16 a new Bank of the United States 
received from Congress a twenty years' 
charter, and in 18 19 the United States 
Supreme Court declared this charter to 
be valid. President Jackson was afraid 
of the great power of the bank, was 
opposed to it from principle, could not 
agree with the decision of the Supreme 
Court, thought that the bank was work- 
ing against him politically, and there- 
fore decided to destroy it if he could. 
In 1832, by a fair majority, a bill was 
passed by Congress re -chartering the 
bank. The President responded with 
a veto message, in which he declared 
the bank to be "unnecessary, useless, 
expensive, hostile to the people, and 
possibly dangerous to the government. " 
The friends of the bank were unable to 
obtain the necessary two-thirds vote to pass the bill over the veto. 

473. Removal of the Deposits. — The Bank of the United States 
was a private corporation, having a charter from the national 

government ; but it was also more than 
this. It was the depository of the funds 
of the United States, and it was the 
agent which the government used for 
doing its financial business. Perhaps 
half of the deposits in the bank con- 
sisted of the money of the federal 
government. The President therefore 
gave it the severest blow possible when 
he ordered that hereafter the govern- 
ment should deposit no more funds in the Bank of the United 
States, but, instead, that they should be loaned to certain specified 
State banks. This bold act of the President nearly caused a panic 
in the money market, and brought upon him a censure from 



John Caldwell Calhoun, a native 
of South Carolina, was born March 
i8th, 1782. He was graduated from 
Yale College, studied law at Litch- 
field, was admitted to the bar, and 
was sent to Congress in 1811. Here 
he became an active member of the 
war party. He was made Secretary 
of War by President Monroe, was 
elected Vice-President by the people 
in 1824, and re-elected in 1828. In 
1816, Mr. Calhoun was in favor of a 
protective tariff, but soon after he 
became a firm believer in the doctrine 
of free trade. He was henceforth a 
consistent advocate of the principle 
of the sovereignty of the State, and of 
the wisdom of the system of slavery. 
Mr. Calhoun was a man of the greatest 
integrity of character, and even his 
political opponents spoke of his worth 
in the highest terms. He was the 
first of the trio (Clay, Calhoun, and 
Webster) to die, his death occurring 
March 31st, 1850. 



William Wirt of Virginia was 
brought forward by a convention of 
Anti-Masons. A popular craze had 
been started against the secret order 
of Free-Masons, and a party had 
been formed whose main idea was to 
prevent any member of that order 
from obtaining public office. In the 
election of 1833 the Anti-Masonic 
party carried the State of Vermont 
only, and in a few years ceased to 
exist. 



248 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1830-1837 



Congress; but the President's plans were effective, and in 1836 
the bank quietly ceased to do business under the charter. No 

United States Bank has 
since been chartered. 

474. Surplus Revenue. 
— The heated discussion 
with regard to the bank 
called attention to the 
fact that there was a con- 
stantly increasing sur- 
plus in the United States 
Treasury. Each year 
the revenue was in ex- 
cess of the expenses of 
the government. What 
should be done with the 
surplus? The majority 
of Congress as well as 
the President were op' 
posed to appropriating 
it for internal improve- 
ments ; no one desired 
to change the Com- 
promise Tariff of 1833 
so as to reduce the reV' 
enue. As the best possible thing to do under the circumstances, 
as they thought, Congress voted to dis- 
tribute the surplus among the States. 
Accordingly, twenty-eight million dol- 
lars were thus divided before the in- 
creased expenditure and the decreased 
revenue brought the surplus to an end. 
475. Minor Matters. — Two new States 
were admitted during Jackson's admin- 
istration, — Arkansas, June 15th, 1836, 
and Michigan, January 26th, 1837. 
The great industrial period of the United States was fast approach 
ing, and the age of invention was dawning during these administra 




Henry Clay. 

(After a daguerreotype.) 



Arkansas, or the '* Bear State," 
was the tliird to be admitted from the 
Louisiana Province. It was given a 
territorial government in i8iq, having 
been a portion of Missouri Territory 
up to that time. Like the other South- 
ern States, it has devoted its attention 
to agriculture, but it is now rapidly 
advancing in the development of its 
material wealth. The census of 1900 
showed a population of over a million, 
a gain of more than forty per cent over 
the census of 1880. 



1835] 



NULLIFICATION. 



249 



tions (1 728). In 1830 the first steam railroad was opened in 
England. Before the end of Jackson's terms there were about two 
thousand miles of steam railroads in this country. Canals became 




An Early Railroad Train. 

of less importance, and the canal fever soon came to an end. Steam 
navigation upon the rivers and lakes was greatly increasing, and 
many regular routes were established. Several discoveries and 
inventions were of importance ; among the most noteworthy of these 
were the use of anthracite coal for 
making steam, the machine-reaper, and 
friction matches. 

476. Presidential Elections. — Martin 
Van Buren was the choice of President 
Jackson to be his successor. Accord- 
ingly, he was nominated by the Dem- 
ocrats in a national convention at 
Baltimore early in 1835. Richard M. 
Johnson of Kentucky was associated 
with him as the candidate for Vice- 
President. The National Republicans 
had now taken the name of "Whigs." William Henry Harrison 
was the candidate of a large portion, though many refused to vote 
for Harrison, claiming that Daniel Webster was entitled to the 
nomination. 

When the votes were counted it was found that Van Buren had 
received 170, a majority, Harrison 73, White, a Democrat opposing 
Van Buren, 26, Webster 14, and W. P. Mangum, of North Caro- 
lina, 1 1. Johnson failed to receive a majority of the electoral votes, 
and was elected by the Senate. 



Michigan was first settled by French 
Jesuit missionaries, early in the seven- 
teenth century. It became a part of 
the Northwest Territory in 1787, and 
received little attention until about 
1810. The first act of the British, in 
the War of 18 12, was to capture 
Michigan. The " Wolverine State" 
has great wheat and oat fields, laige 
apple and peach orchards, and im- 
mense lumber regions. Michigan is 
especially noted for vast, copper and 
iron mines, as well as valuable salt- 
works. The State ranks ninth in pop- 
ulation, having nearly two and a half 
million inhabitants. 



250 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1837 



CHAPTER LXIIL 



FINANCIAL PANICS AND THE SUB-TREASURY. 1837-1841. 



477. Wild-Cat Banks. — One of the first results of the overthrow 
of the Bank of the United States was the formation of a vast num- 
ber of State banks throughout the country. Many of these had no 
money and no financial standing, and fraudulently attempted to 
enrich their stockholders by issuing paper money which they knew 

they never could redeem. Such insti- 
tutions were called "wild-cat" banks; 
and as soon as one of them failed be- 
cause of inability to redeem its notes, 
its stockholders would simply form 
another. The banks with whom the 
government placed its deposits were 
thereby on a better footing than the 
others, and were commonly called " pet 
banks." 

478. Panic of 1837. — The President 
issued a "Specie Circular," which di- 
rected that only gold or silver should 
be received as payment for the public lands. The notes of the 
wild-cat banks were therefore useless for this purpose, and at once 
a panic ensued. Money had become scarce, and the prices of the 
necessities of life became very high. Bread riots took place in 
New York City, and business failures were announced all over 
the country. Soon all the banks of the country found themselves 
unable to redeem their notes with specie, and bank failures became 
too nearly universal. The year 1837 was long remembered as the 
most disastrous in the history of the country. 

479. The Sub-Treasury. — When President Jackson withdrew the 
deposits from the Bank of the United States he found it necessary 
to place them in State banks, as there were no other places of 
deposit. President Van Buren recommended to Congress the estab- 
lishment of sub-treasuries, as they were called, and a bill for this 



Martin Van Buren was born at 
Kinderhook, New York, December 5th, 
17S2. He was admitted to the bar at 
an early age and rapidly rose in polit- 
ical life. In 1821 he was appointed 
United States Senator; in 1S28 he be- 
came Governor of New York; he was 
Secretary of State nnder Jackson and 
later Vice-President. Van Buren was 
defeated for re-election, his opponent 
in 1836 being victorious in 1840. He 
received nearly enough votes at the 
Democratic Convention in 1844, but 
not quite sufficient to receive the nom- 
ination. In 1848 he was the candidate 
of the Free-Soil party. He died July 
24th, 1862. 



1840-1841] TEXAS AND OREGON. 25 1 

purpose was introduced. This plan, sometimes called the " Tnde 
pendent Treasury " scheme, was " to make the government the cus- 
todian in its own vaults of its own funds." After repeated failures 
to pass this bill through Congress, its friends were successful in 
1840, and from that time, with a short intermission, this plan has 
been the "permanent system of federal financial administration." 

480. Presidential Election. — The panics that occurred during Van 
Buren's administration caused a reaction against the Democratic 
party, which had passed the laws which many thought had been the 
direct cause of the financial distress. The campaign of 1840 was 
fought with the same leaders as that of four years before. Both 
parties were united, however, as they had not been in the other 
election, and the contest was a direct one between the principles 
of the two parties. A remarkably enthusiastic contest followed 
the nomination of candidates, which has since been known as the 
" log-cabin and hard-cider " campaign. Harrison and Tyler, or 
"Tippecanoe and Tyler too," received nearly four-fifths of the elec- 
toral vote, and were declared elected. 



CHAPTER LXIV. 

TEXAS AND OREGON. 1841-1845. 

481. The President's Death. — March 4th, 1841, President Harrison 
took the oath of office, and April 4th he died in the White House. 
Vice-President Tyler accordingly became President, and the affairs 
of the government went on without a break. The new President 
was not, however, in harmony with the leaders of the Whig party, 
and discord soon arose between them. Throughout the four years 
of President Tyler's term the Whigs and the President were opposed 
to each other on nearly every question. 

482. The Ashburton Treaty. — The members of President Harri- 
son's cabinet were retained by President Tyler ; but all of them, 
except Webster, the Secretary of State, resigned when the issue 
was made between the President and the Whig party. Daniel 
Webster remained for a time in order to complete the negotiation of 



2=;2 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1835-1842 




a treaty with Great Britain. This was called the Ashburton Treaty, 
and definitely settled the position of the boundary line between 

Canada and the United States as 
W:J-^: ;-'f!r;^rr^?'^ffiV^ fa.- west as the Rocky Mountains. 

483. Texas. — Mention has been 
made of the revolt of the Spanish 
American colonies (IT 449) during 
the earlier part of the century. 
Among these was the new nation 
of Mexico, and one of the con- 
stituent parts of this republic was 
the State of Texas and Coahuila. 
This State bordered upon Louisi- 
ana, and very soon many South- 
erners, taking their slaves with 
them, moved into Texas. By 1835 
the number of Americans was so 
greatly in excess of the Spaniards 
that Texas revolted from Mexico. 
Under the lead of General Sam- 
uel Houston, a desperate struggle was carried on for nearly a year. 
In 1836 Houston attacked Santa Amia, and a severe battle took 
place at San Jacinto. Although the 
Mexican force was nearly double that 
of the Texans, Houston totally defeated 
Santa Anna. This victory placed the 
new State upon a firm footing, and 
Texas became an independent republic. 
Within a year the United States recog- 
nized the independence of Texas, and 
almost immediately the new government 
applied for annexation to the United 
States. 

484. Annexation of Texas. — The slave-owners of the South had 
begun to realize that most of the territory south of the compromise 
parallel of 36° 30' had been made into slave States, while there was 



Daniel Webster. 

(After a daguerreotype.) 



William Henry Harrison, known 
as " Tippecanoe," because of his vic- 
tory over the Indians at that place, 
was born at Berkeley, Virginia, Feb- 
ruary gth, 1773. He held many high 
positions in the army and was finally 
elected President by the Whigs in 1840. 

He was succeeded by John Tyler, 
who was also a native of Virginia. 
Tyler had previously been a member 
of the States Rights party, and al- 
though elected by the Whigs, retained 
many of the principles of this party. 
He was born March 29th, 1790, and 
died January 17th, 1862. 



I844-I845] 



TEXAS AND OREGON. 



253 




Still much left north of the line out of which free States could be 
carved. It would be greatly to their advantage to admit the appli- 
cant at once. President Van Bu- 
ren was opposed to the idea, and 
the matter was left for a more ap- 
propriate season. President Tyler 
thought differently, however, and 
in the latter part of his term sent 
to the Senate a treaty annexing 
Texas to the Union. The treaty 
was so suddenly presented to a 
hostile Senate that it refused to 
ratify it. After the Presidential 
election had resulted in favor of 
the Democrats, both houses of 
Congress, in spite of very great 
objection from the Northern mem- 
bers, passed resolutions approving 
''reannexation." The definite an- 
nexation of the new State was deferred until the Texan government 

had accepted the terms of Congress 
(IF 488). Meanwhile Florida entered 
the Union on the last day of President 
Tyler's term, March 3d, 1845. 

485. Oregon. — West of the Rocky 
Mountains and north of Mexico was a 
tract of land which had received the 
name of the Oregon country. Spain, 
England, and the United States had 
considered this region to be a portion of 
their territory, presenting claims that 
were of more or less value. Before the 
year 1844, however, Spain had ceded 
her claims to the United States. Be- 
sides, the American nation claimed the 
region because of the discovery of the Columbia River by Captain 



Samuel Houston. 



Florida. — On Easter Sunday (Pas- 
cha Floridum), Ponce de Leon discov- 
ered land and named it Florida. The 
first permanent settlement within the 
United States was made at St. Augus- 
tine, in 1565. The province changed 
from Spanish into English hands in 
1763, and back again in 1783. The his- 
tory of the territory until its purchase in 
1819 has been told. " The produc- 
tions of Florida are of an essentially 
tropical character." Mostofthe State 
possesses a very agreeable climate, and 
it is therefore a favorite winter resort. 
It has had a remarkable development 
during the last few years, which is shown 
by its greater gain per cent, in valuation 
than that of any other State east of the 
Mississippi. Its population in 1900 
was over five hundred thousand. 



54 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1792-1846 




Samuel F. B. Morse. 

(From an engraving in the Treasury Depart- 
ment, Washington, D. C.) 



Gray in 1792, the exploration of the river by Lewis and Clark in 
1805 and 1806, and the settlement at Astoria in 181 1. On the 

nther hand, England claimed prior 
c\])loration and settlement, and thus 
the matter had stood for many 
years. When the Presidential cam- 
jxiign of 1844 was fought on the 
cpicstion of the annexation of Texas, 
tlie Democratic party coupled with 
this the proposition to demand the 
\\hole territory of Oregon from 
England. The cry was *' Fifty-four 
forty or fight," which meant to hold 
the territory against England as far 
north as 54° 40' (the southern bound- 
ary of Alaska), or fight her for it. 
In 1846 the two nations agreed by 
treaty that the parallel of 49° should be continued westward to 
the channel opposite Vancouver's Island. 

That Oregon was saved to the United States was largely due to 
the heroic efforts of Dr. Marcus Whitman, who was a missionary 
among the Indians in the region of the upper Columbia. When it 
was discovered that the Hudson Bay Company was seeking to secure 
a majority of the inhabitants, Dr. Whitman with a single companion 
started for Washington and made a journey of over three thousand 
miles in the middle of winter to warn the government of the designs 
of the British, and to implore its protection for our citizens in Oregon. 
During the following summer Dr. Whitman piloted a great caravan, 
consisting of nearly a thousand persons, and fifteen hundred head of 
cattle, from Missouri to the Columbia River. This large addition 
to the population of Oregon more than doubled the number of inhabi- 
tants, and the Americans soon organized and put in operation a pro- 
visional government, with George Abernethy as governor. When, 
therefore, the Pakenham Treaty of 1846 settled the boundary ques- 
tion, it was only legalizing what, in fact, had already been made 
certain by this emigration of 1843. 



1842] 



TEXAS AND OREGON, 



255 



486. Dorr Rebellion. — A civil war broke out in Rhode Island Ib 
May, 1842, which had its origin in a revokitionary attempt to 
replace the charter of Charles II. (IT 6^) by a more modern and 
democratic constitution. The limita- 



tion of the suffrage to landowners and 



The Magnetic Telegraph. —The 
first jiraclical experiment witli the mag- 
netic telegraph took place in the year 
1844, when Congress established a trial 
line between Washington and Balti- 
more. Thirty thousand dollars was 
appropriated for this purpose, and the 
telegraphic system of Samuel F. B. 
Morse, which had been patented in 
1837, was nsed. The first words sent 
over this wire were *' What hath God 
wrought!" The telegraph, with the 
railroad, marks the beginning of a new 
era in the prosperity of the country. 



their eldest sons, and the inequalities 
of the representation in the General 
Assembly, were the principal objec- 
tionable features of the government 
which had grown up under the charter. 
The agitation for reform began soon 
after the presidential election of 1840, 
and in the winter of 1 841-1842 resulted 
in the formation of two constitutions. 
One, framed by a convention, which had been legally called by the 
legislature, was defeated by the people, while the other, prepared 
by the suffragists in an assembly, summoned and held without the 
form of law, was declared by them to have been adopted. 

A State election was held under the new constitution at which 
the suffrage party alone participated. Thomas W. Dorr was de- 
clared elected Governor, and an entire 
State government was chosen. The 
'' law and order " party, then in power, 
considered this election illegal, and 
chose Samuel W. King governor, at 
an election held in accordance with 
the charter requirements. The two 
governments were organized, and a bit- 
ter struggle seemed imminent. Presi- 
dent Tyler declared in favor of the 
charter authorities, and sent United 
States troops to Fort Adams, to be in 
readiness if needed. After two months 
of . excitement the "Dorr Rebellion" collapsed, and order was 
restored. A third constitution was prepared, which granted most 
of the desired changes. It was adopted almost unanimously, and 
put in operation in May, 1843. Dorr surrendered to the State 
authorities, was tried for high treason, convicted and sentenced to 



Patroon War. — When the Dutch 
settled New Netherland large tracts 
of land were granted to members of 
the wealthier class, called patroons. 
The system of disposing of these lands 
to the tenants was a peculiar one, in 
which the tenants partially owned them, 
but were compelled to pay a certain 
fee to the patroon This custom con- 
tinued until the middle of this century, 
and during Tyler's administration 
many " anti-rent " riots took place, and 
the State authorities were compelled 
to call out the militia to put down the 
Patroon War. Little by little the 
lands were sold without the fees, and 
absolute ownership was obtained. 



256 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1844-1845 

imprisonment for life. After a confinement of one year he was set 
free under a general amnesty act, and his civil rights were restored 
to him a few years later. 

487. Presidential Election. — 'In 1844 the Whig National Conven- 
tion, after adopting a platform, nominated Henry Clay of Kentucky 
and Theodore Frelinghuysen of New York as its candidates. The 
Democratic Convention failed to renominate Van Buren, who had 
been a leading candidate, and finally put in nomination James K. 
Polk of Tennessee and George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania. A very 
closely contested election resulted, in which the Democratic can- 
didates were successful. This result was due very largely to a 
small number of voters in the North, who had belonged to the Whig 
party, but who refused to vote for Clay because of his doubtful stand 
on the question of the annexation of TexaSo 



CHAPTER LXV. 

WAR WITH MEXICO. 1845-1849. 

488. The Texan Boundary. ^ — The Republic of Mexico had not 
acknowledged the independence of Texas, and would not accept 
the boundary lines that Texas claimed. The disputed boundary 

question was whether the new State 
should include any of the province of 
Coahuila, or not, and if it did what 
portion. Texas claimed to the west 
as far as the Rio Grande, and north to 
the border line between Mexico and the 
United States. Mexico held that the 
western boundary of her State, Texas, 
was the Nueces River. When, Decem- 
ber 29th, 1845, Congress admitted 

Texas into the Union, the United States was pledged to uphold the 

claims of Texas as against Mexico. 

489. Declaration of War. — President Polk had taken the necessar' 
steps to defend the disputed territory from any occupation by the 



James Knox Polk was a native of 
North Carolina. His father intended 
to make a merchant of him ; but as 
the son was opposed to business life, 
he finally allowed him to enter college 
and to study law. He showed great 
abilities in his chosen line, became 
Speaker of the House of Representa- 
tives, Governor of Tennessee, and 
President of the United States. Mr. 
Polk was born in 1795, and died in 



I 845-1 846] 



WAR WITfl MEXICO. 



257 



Mexicans. During the summer of 1845 he had sent General 
Zachary Taylor (l[ 500), with a large force, to take possession of the 
country between the Nueces and the Rio Grande. Obeying these 

orders of the President, Taylor seized 
Corpus Christi and awaited further 
orders or developments. During the 
spring of 1846 the President took 
the responsibility of ordering General 
Taylor to proceed to the Rio Grande. 
Taylor moved his forces to the mouth 
of the Rio Grande and was there re- 
quested by the Mexican general, Arista, 
to retire to the Nueces. Taylor refused, and therefore a portion 
of the Mexican force crossed the river, and on April 23d, 1846, 
attacked and captured a small detachment of the American army. 
Thus the first 



Texas is the largest State in the 
Union, and has a larger area ti)an any 
nation in Europe, except Russia. The 
State ranks among the foremost in tlie 
production of cotton, cattle, sheep, 
horses, and sugar. About a third of 
the State is agricultural, while the 
remainder is pastoral. The " Lone 
Star State " is sixth in population, 
having over three million inhabit- 




blood was shed. 
As soon as Presi- 
dent Polk received 
intelligence of the 
skirmish, he sent 
a message to Con- 
gress declaring, 
"Mexico has 
passed the boun- 
dary of the United 
States, and shed 
American blood 
upon American 
soil. War exists, 
and exists by the 
act of Mexico her- 
self" May 13th, 
1846, a f o r m a 1 
declaration that war existed with Mexico was passed by Congress. 

490. Taylor's Victories. — The first battle of the war occurred a few 
days earlier. As General Taylor moved his forces along the river to 
relieve one of his subordinates, he met General Arista with a force of 

17 



258 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[l 846-1 847 



twice or three times his own. On May 8th, a well-fought engage- 
ment took place at this point, Palo Alto, in which Ringgold's 
" Flying Artillery " quickly won the victory. The next morning the 
enemy retreated and took up a strong position at Resaca de la 
Palma, to await an attack from General Taylor. This attack was made 
May 9th, and after a desperate fight the Mexicans were driven back 
to the Rio Grande, which they crossed in much confusion. In these 
two battles the enemy lost about one-quarter of the force. Nine 
days later the American army crossed the river and captured the 
town of Matamoras. 

491. Monterey and Buena Vista. — General Taylor remained at 
Matamoras waiting for orders and re-enforcements until September. 
On the 5th of this month he started on a march westward, and on the 
19th reached and attacked the town of Monterey. The American 
force besieged and stormed this town for four days, and on the 24th 

the Mexicans surrendered, being 
permitted to evacuate with the hon- 
ors of war. 

The force under General Taylor 
was greatly reduced during the early 
winter, many of his men being sent 
away for various purposes. The 
Mexican general, Santa Anna, learn- 
ing of this fact, sent a large force to 
annihilate the American army, now 
diminished to about one-third the 
size of his own. General Taylor 
chose the narrow mountain pass 
of Buena Vista, and here awaited 
the attack. The battle took place 
February 23d and 24th, 1847, ^^^ 
resulted in the retreat of Santa Anna on the next day. When he 
reached the city of Mexico, his army was barely half as large as 
when he set out. This glorious victory at Buena Vista ended the 
war in that section of Mexico. 

492. New Mexico and California. — While General Taylor was 
entering Mexico from Texas, other expeditions were made against 
New Mexico and California. During the summer of 1846 General 




General Winfield Scotf. 

(After a daguerreotype.) 



I846-I847] 



WAR WITH MEXICO. 



259 



Kearney marched against Santa Fe, one of the oldest of the Spanish 
towns now within the Hmits of the United States, and captured it 
without opposition. He left Colonel Doniphan here, and then set 
out for California. Doniphan moved south and captured the city of 
Chihuahua. Thus the whole territory 
of New Mexico was in the hands of 
the Americans. 

Several years before this time John 
C. Fremont (I" 528) had been sent out 
to explore various parts of the Rocky 
Mountains. In 1842 he crossed the 
mountains; in 1843 he explored the 
Great Salt Lake and travelled for some 
time in California; in 1846 he was 
ready to assist in snatching the terri- 
tory from the Mexicans. Commodores 
Sloat and Stockton were the leaders, 
together with Captain Fremont, in the 
capture of California. The towns of 
Monterey, Los Angeles, and San Francisco surrendered to the Amer- 
icans with but little resistance, and Mexico had lost California also. 

493. A New Plan. — The government, perhaps for political rea- 
sons, decided to intrust the most important campaign of the war to 
General Winfield Scott, instead of to General Taylor. General 



Winfield Scott, the second man to 
be honored with the title of Lieutenant- 
General, was born June 13th, 1786. He 
first became prominent in the battle of 
Queenstown Heights, October 13th, 
1S12. He was made major-general 
because of his bravery in the battles 
of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane. His 
greatest achievement as a general was 
his campaign in Mexico in 1847. The 
Whigs nominated him for the Presi- 
dency in 1852, but he was unable to 
revive that party, which was fast pass- 
ing away. In spite of the secession of 
his native State, Virginia, he remained 
at the head of the Union armies until 
he was compelled to retire on account 
of his advanced age. He lived to see 
the nation victorious, and died May 
29th, 1866. 




Scott was sent with a new army and a portion of Taylor's to attack 
the city of Vera Cruz, and from that point to march against the 
city of Mexico. With a force of about twelve thousand men, the 
new commander landed at Vera Cruz on the night of the 9th oi 



26o 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1847 




March, 1847, and immediately began a siege of the city. The 
town Was bombarded for nine days and on the 29th surrendered, 
. . ^ ^ with its entire garrison. 

494. On to Mexico. — In April, 
General Scott started on his 
march to the city of Mexico. 
Santa Anna strengthened his 
forces after the battle of Buena 
Vista, and advanced from Mex- 
ico and awaited Scott at the pass 
of Cerro Gordo. Here he was 
attacked on the 17th of April, 
and after a two days' battle, his 
army fled in a rout, though the 
Mexican force was fully one- 
third greater than that of Scott. 
Moving on to Puebla, General 
The Mormon Temple. Scott placed his troops in Sum- 

mer quarters. Receiving re-enforcements, he advanced in August, 
and soon arrived in sight of the capital, 
without fighting another battle. 

495. Capture of Mexico. — The city of 
Mexico is situated in a deep, semi- 
circular valley. Around the city was 
a '* serpent-like line of barriers, natural 
and artificial, as impregnable to assault 
as four months of toil could make 
them." August 20th, the fighting be- 
gan, and a series of brilliant victories 
took place until at evening the Mexi- 

.cans were all shut up within the city. 
Day by day the Americans drew nearer 
and nearer Mexico, capturing the strong 
fortress of Chapultepec by storm, Sep- 
tember 13th, and on the next day en- 
tering the capital and ending the war. 

496. The Wilmot Proviso. — December 
28th, 1846, Iowa was admitted to the Union as the twenty ninth 



Mormons. — Joseph Smith and, 
later, Brigham Young were the lead- 
ers of a new religious denomination, 
" The Church of Jesus Christ of Lat- 
ter-Day Saints," commonly called 
"Mormons." Smith claimed to have 
found the " Book of Mormon," which, 
with other revelations, added to the 
Christian Bible, was the foundation 
upon which the new religion was 
built. The Mormons were driven from 
Missouri because of the hostility of 
their neighbors, and settled in Nauvoo, 
Illinois. Smith was killed by a mob, 
and his followers then fled across the 
plains toward the west. Young led 
this band of emigrants to Utah, which 
was at that time a part of Mexico. 
Here, in a sterile valley, not far from 
Great Salt Lake, they made a perma- 
nent settlement, and in July, 1847, 
hoisted the stars and stripes from 
"Ensign Peak." Salt Lake City is 
now in the midst of a fertile valley 
made productive by irrigation. 



1848] 



WAR WITH MEXICO. 



261 



State, and Wisconsin May 29th, 1848, as the thirtieth. The free 
and slave States were still even in number, and the North looked 
with apprehension upon a war waged, as it seemed to them, for the 
express purpose of increasing the slave territory. When the propo- 
sition was brought up in Congress, early in the war, to appropriate 
money for the purchase of lands from Mexico, in the event of her 
vanquishment, which no one seemed to doubt, an effort was made 
to prevent such land from being devoted to slavery. David Wilmot, 
a member of Congress from Pennsylvania, offered an amendment 




The City ot Mexico. 



to the bill under discussion. This provided that in any territories 
that might be obtained from Mexico, " neither slavery nor invol- 
untary servitude should exist." This amendment was called the 
" Wilmot Proviso," and barely failed to become a law. The failure 
to pass this proviso angered the opponents of slavery, and the very 
proposal of the bill angered the slave-owners. The slavery contest 
was definitely begun. 

497. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. — The fall of Mexico neces- 
sitated a treaty of peace, which was finally signed, February 2d, 1848, 



262 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1848 



Iowa, or the " Hawkeye State," 
was originally a portion of the Loui- 
siana Territory. It was afterwards in- 
cluded in Missouri Territory, then in 
Michigan Territory, and later in Wis- 
consin Territory. In 1S38 it was given 
a separate territorial organization, the 
first settlement having been made fifty 
years earlier. The soil of the State is 
exceedingly fertile, and the climate 
healthful. In the production of Indian 
corn and wheat, it holds a high rank 
among the agricultural States. Like 
most of the States of that section, Iowa 
has had a remarkable growth. A popu- 
lation of forty thousand in 1840 has 
become, sixty years later, a population 
of two and a quarter millions. 



at the little village of Guadalupe Hidalgo. One of the most Important 
articles of this treaty was that which settled the boundary between 

the two countries. Mexico yielded 
Texas, made the Rio Grande the boun- 
dary, and sold to the United States the 
two entire provinces of California and 
New Mexico, for the sum of fifteen 
million dollars, and whatever debts 
were due from Mexico to the citizens 
of the United States. This treaty was 
ratified, and peace was restored. 

498. Parties. — A new party was 
formed near the close of President 
Polk's term, called the " Free-Soilers." 
Many of the members of this party 
were those who felt that since the 
Wilmot Proviso had failed, the outlook for any future freedom from 
the chains of slavery was very meagre. They declared for " free 
soil for a free people." The policy of the party was not to make 
an attempt to interfere with slavery in 
the States or to change the Constitution 
for this purpose, but simply to forbid 
slavery forever in any of the territo- 
ries. In 1848 this party nominated ex- 
President Van Buren for President, and 
Charles Francis Adams of Massachu- 
setts for^Vice-President. 

499. Presidential Election.— The Dem- 
ocratic National Convention, after de- 
claring that Congress had no power to interfere with slavery 
anywhere, nominated Lewis Cass of Michigan for President and 
William O. Butler of Kentucky for Vice-President. The Whig 
National Convention was afraid of the slavery question, and adopted 
no platform. Their candidates were Zachary Taylor and Millard 
Fillmore of New York. General Taylor proved to be a popular 
candidate, and was elected, receiving 163 votes to 127 for Cass. 

In 1853 the ''Gadsden Purchase" added nearly 50,000 square 
miles to our domain. It cost us ten million dollars. 



■Wisconsin, or the " Badger State," 
was the last of the five States to be 
formed from the Northwest Territory. 
Very little immigration to the territory 
took place before 1825. The southern 
portion of the State has most fertile 
soil, while the northern part is covered 
with vast forests. The advantages for 
manufacturing are excellent, and great 
quantities of iron ore are extracted from 
its mines. Its population is now over 
two millions. 



1 849] 



COMPROMISE OF 1850. 



263 



CHAPTER LXVI. 



THE COMPROMISE OF 1850. 



500. California. — One of the first matters to be brought to the 
attention of the new President was the question concerning the lands 
which had been purchased from Mexico. The portion of this pur- 
chase which lay upon the Pacific Coast was called California ; and 
before Congress was ready to provide a territorial government, it 
made application to be admitted as a 
State. During the years 1848 and 1849 
an unprecedented migration took place 
from all portions of the United States 
to the mountains of California. Around 
Cape Horn, across the Isthmus of 
Panama, and even over land by cara- 
vans, thousands were drawn to the new 
land by the report that gold had been 
discovered in great abundance. As 
early as the autumn of 1849 there were 
more than one hundred thousand in- 
habitants in the territory, a State 
Constitution had been formed, State 
officers had been chosen, and applica- 
tion had been made to Congress for 
admission. 

501. The " Omnibus Bill."— While the 
search for gold was taking place, political 
leaders, both in the North and in the South, were discussing the 
future of the Mexican purchase, as well as the ever-present question 
of slavery. Bitter dissensions were common, and threats of secession 
were heard on all sides. For the third time Henry Clay came for- 
ward as " The Great Compromiser." A special committee, of 
which he was chairman, presented three bills, one of which has 
received the title of the '* Omnibus Bill," because it contained so 
many unconnected subjects. At first it failed of passage, btat 



General Zachary Taylor, the 
twelfth President, was born November 
24th, 1784, in Orange County, Virginia 
He served with distinction in the War 
of 1812, the Black Hawk War, and the 
war with the Seminole Indians. On 
the outbreak of the troubles with 
Mexico he was given the command of 
the forces in Texas. During the war 
he met with great success, which led 
to his nomination for President by the 
Whig party in 1848. General Taylor 
was familiarly known as " Old Rough 
and Ready." He died in office, July 
9th, 1850. 

He was succeeded by the Vice-Pres- 
ident, Millard Fillmore, who had pre- 
viously been well known in the House 
of Representatives as a supporter of 
John Quincy Adams and as Chairman 
of the Ways and Means Committee. 
In 1856 Fillmore was nominated for 
the Presidency by the American party. 
He was born in Cayuga County, New 
York, January 7th, 1800, and died 
March 8th, 1874. 



264 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1850 




afterwards it was divided, and each section became a law very 

much as Clay proposed. 

502. Compromise of 1850. — 
These bills, though passed sep- 
arately, have always been called 
the " Compromise Measures 
of 1850." California was ad- 
mitted as a free State Septem- 
ber 9th, 1850; the rest of the 
Mexican Cession was divided 
into two territories, Utah and 
New Mexico, with or without 
slavery as each should decide ; 
and Texas was paid ten million 
dollars for a large portion of 
her lands. Two other matters 
were settled at the same time ; 
namely, that slavery was al- 
lowed to continue within the 
Washing out Gold. DistHct of Columbia, but the 

slave-trade was prohibited, and a new and strict Fugitive-Slave 
Law was enacted. 

503. The Fugitive-Slave Law. — The 
Constitution of the United States de- 
clared that every person held to service 
or labor in one State, and escaping to 
another, should be delivered up by that 
State. In 1793 Congress passed the nec- 
essary laws to enforce this portion of 
the Constitution, thus enacting a Fugi- 
tive-Slave Law. This law remained in 
force until 1850, when it was superseded 
by the more stringent law of that year. 
The South claimed that the earlier act 
was not properly enforced, and that no 
provision had been made to compel its 
enforcement. The antislavery leaders objected strongly to certain 
features of this new act, especially the clauses which allowed the 



Discovery of Gold. — In the early 
portions of 184S, a Swiss immigrant in 
California, Captain Sutter by name, 
began to build a saw-mill. He had 
established himself on a branch of the 
Sacramento River, some fifty miles 
east of Sacramento. As the workmen 
were engaged in digging the mill-race, 
they came upon certain shining parti- 
cles which had the appearance of gold. 
An attempt was made to keep the dis- 
covery a secret, but before the finders 
had ascertained whether the grains 
were gold or not, the news had reached 
San Francisco. Some very remarkable 
"finds" were soon made, and the 
story spread throughout the country. 
The name "Forty-niners" was given 
to the thousands that migrated to Cali- 
fornia during the year 1849. 



I85I] 



THE COMPROMISE OF 1850. 



265 



California. — The name California 
originally applied to the whole Pacific 
coast from about forty-two degrees 
north latitude to the mouth of the Gulf 
of California. Lower California was 
discovered by Mendoza in 1534, and 
California proper was explored by Ca- 
brillo in 1542. The region remained 
in Spanish and Mexican hands until 
conquered in 1S46 and purchased in 
1848. California contains a great gold- 
producing region, and since 1848 has 
furnished a large portion of the world's 
supply of the " King of Metals." The 
" Golden State " also possesses great 
quantities of silver and mercury, be- 
sides many other ores. Certain sec- 
tions of the State are unsurpassed in 
their agricultural productions. South- 
ern California is especially noted for its 
delightful climate. The State is rap- 
idly growing, having a million and a 
half inhabitants. San Francisco, with 
over three hundred thousand people 
and its unexcelled harbor, is the me- 
tropolis of the Pacific coast. 



person pretending to be the owner simply to affirm that the negro 

was his property in order to prove his 
ownership, which forbade the matter to 
be tried by jury, and which compelled 
those who morally disbelieved in slavery 
to assist in enforcing the law. As a 
result, many riots and rescues took 
place in various portions of the North, 
and an organized system of aiding fugi- 
tive slaves to escape to Canada was 
instituted. This has been called " The 
Underground Railway." 

504. New Leaders. — President Taylor 
died July 9th, 1851, from a fever caused 
by the heat of the preceding Fourth. 
Vice-President Fillmore succeeded him. 
Again the Whigs had lost their Presi- 
dent by death, and again the succes- 
sion was fatal to future party success. 
During this administration all of the 

older great political leaders died, leaving the work to be done by 

younger men. A few months before 

the death of President Taylor, Cal- |i[|i 

houn passed away, and during the 

next Presidential campaign the 

other two of the great trio, Clay 

and Webster, also ceased from their 

labors. The new leaders might be 

classed as antislavery or as pro- 
slavery men. Among the former 

the most prominent were William 

H. Seward of New York, Salmon P. 

Chase of Ohio (I 633), and Charles 

Sumner of Massachusetts (H 526). 

Among the latter, Jefferson Davis 

of Mississippi (n 536), Alexander 

H. Stephens of Georgia (H 537), 

and Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois (l[ 524) were best known. 




William H. Seward. 



a negative in the possession of the U. S. 
Government.) 



266 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1852 



505. Temperance. — The first " Temperance Societies " were formed 
about the year 1825. Previous to that time the evils resulting 
from alcoholic drinks had been constantly on the increase. Almost 

everybody drank intoxicating liquors, 
and drunkenness was a prevalent vice. 
'The American Society for the Pro- 
motion of Temperance," formed in 
1826, and the " Washingtonian Tem- 
perance Society," formed in 1840, were 
followed by a large number of similar 
organizations, many of which pledged 
their members to total abstinence from 
the use of strong drinks. Thousands 
were restored to manhood, and incal- 
culable blessings resulted. 

506. Residential Election. — As in 1848, 
so in 1852, there were three national 
parties in the field. The Democratic 
National Convention pledged a faithful 
observance of the compromise meas- 
ures, and nominated, after a long con- 
test, Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire 
for President, and William R. King of Alabama for Vice-President 
The Whig National Convention approved the compromise measures, 
and nominated Winfield Scott of Vir- 
ginia, and William A. Graham of North 
Carolina as its candidates. 

All voters who were opposed to the 
compromise were compelled to vote for 
one of the two parties claiming to be 
in favor of it, or else to throw away their 
votes on the Free Soil Candidates, Hale 
and Julian. This party declared for " no 
more slave States, no more slave ter- 
ritories, no nationalized slavery, and no 
national legislation for the extradition of slaves." Four States voted 
for the Whig candidates, and the Democrats carried all the rest. 
Pierce and l^ing were elected by a vote of 254 electors to 42. 



William Henry Seward, the leader 
of the Whig party in New York, was 
born in that State May i6th, 1801. He 
early began the practice of law, en- 
tered politics, and was chosen governor 
in 1838. He took a leading position 
among the opponents of slavery, and 
was sent to the Senate in 1849, at a 
time when but few antislavery men 
were to be found in Congress. He 
naturally joined the Republican party 
at its formation, and was a leading can- 
didate for the nomination to the Presi- 
dency in i860. Mr. Seward was made 
Secretary of State by President Lin- 
coln, and he held that responsible posi- 
tion during the war with remarkable 
ability. He then joined hands with 
President Johnson, and lost the favor 
of his former friends. October loth, 
1872, he died at his home in Auburn, 
New York. Mr. Seward was the 
author of the phrase, "The Irrepressi- 
ble Conflict," which he felt must con- 
tinue until either the free or the slave 
, States were victorious. 



Maine Law. — For twenty-five 
years the temperance societies were the 
only means adopted to prevent the evils 
of drunkenness. In 185 1, the State of 
Maine passed a law prohibiting the 
manufacture or sale of intoxicating 
liquors, except for medicinal purposes. 
This "Maine Law" was the first at- 
tempt to control the matter by legal 
prohibition. At times other States 
have followed her example. To-day 
this question is one of the most impor- 
tant for the American people to settle. 



1776-1810] THE GROWTH OF THE SLAVERY AGITATION. 267 

CHAPTER LXVII. 

THE GROWTH OF THE SLAVERY AGITATION. 

507. North and South. — When the thirteen States declared their 
independence in 1776, the distinction between North and South 
which later developed did not exist. Negroes were held as slaves in 
every State of the Union (H 394), though the number in the South 
was the greater. This was due partly to the fact that the negroes 
had been brought from the warm regions of Africa and could endure 
Southern heat better than Northern cold. The white population had 
suffered severely from the climate in the Southern colonies, and had 
been unable to endure the strain of work upon the great plantations. 

508. The Slave-Trade. — This difference in the number of negroes, 
North and South, became greater during the twenty years between 
1788 and 1808, the period during which the Constitution permitted 
the introduction of slaves from Africa (if 447). By 18 10 there 
were more than a million negro slaves south of Mason and Dixon's 
line, but north of that line slavery had been abolished in every State. 
This difference between the sections caused a great divergence in 
their customs and institutions. It resulted also in such a variance in 
their modes of thought as almost to divide the nation into two hos- 
tile wings. Abraham Lincoln's opinion, expressed in i860, that this 
country could not forever continue half slave and half free, was 
correct. 

509. Early Ideas. — Jefferson and Washington were slave-owners, 
as were all of the first statesmen from the Southern section, but they 
differed from the majority of the Southerners in believing that the 
slaves should gradually be set free. President Jefferson had at one 
time the expectation that slavery must eventually and, he hoped, 
peacefully die out. He lived long enough, however, to see that his 
desire was not to be realized, and to fear that slavery might some 
time proVe a serious injury to the country. 

510. Change of Views. — The invention of the cotton-gin (if 397), 
which so stimulated the raising of cotton, made negro help almost 
an absolute necessity. The people of the South had come to accept 



268 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1800-1850 

the system as right ; and while, before, they had been in the habit of 
apologizing for its existence, now many of them spoke and wrote ol 
it as being highly beneficial even to the slaves themselves. As the 
owners of the large plantations acquired more and more slaves, they 
were more and more opposed to the idea of emancipation. As the 
negroes did all the work of the plantations, their masters had only 
to enjoy the blessings of life, with few of its hardships. 

511. Slaves. — The condition of the slaves varied greatly undei 
different circumstances. Those that were employed in the house- 
hold were treated with great kindness and sometimes were affection- 
ately loved by their masters and mistresses. Those that worked in 
the field, especially upon the large plantations, under the care of 
overseers, were often used harshly. They were frequently whipped, 
sometimes very severely, and at times their suffering was extreme. 
It was the policy of the slave-owners not to enlighten the slaves, 
and in some of the States it was a crime to teach even a free negro 
to read. The auction-block sales, where negroes were bought to 
be carried to the cotton-fields, were, in Northern eyes, the most 
offensive features of the whole slave system. The separating of 
parents from children, husbands from wives, as one or the othei 
was taken away, never to be seen again by their friends, seemed 
to be one of the worst evils of the system. 

512. The Effect upon the South. — If there were any question as to 
the evil effects of slavery upon the negro himself, there is none as to 
the great injury which the system did to the South. The possession 
of a large number of slaves made life easy for the owner, but added 
no real wealth to the State. Slave labor was and always must be one 
of the most wasteful forms of human industry. The slaves had no 
interest in their labor, and did as little work as possible. Intelli- 
gence and industry are requisite for national as well as individual 
success. 

Another serious evil resulting from slavery was its effect upon the 
whites who did not own slaves. The largest portion of the work 
was done by the slaves, and therefore labor came to be considered a 
disgrace. White men would not work side by side with the blacks, 
and there was but little other work for those who did not own land. 
The " poor whites " naturally became shiftless, did only enough to 
keep body and soul together, and dragged out a mere existence. 



1808-1831] THE GROWTH OF THE SLAVERY AGITATION. 269 

It has frequently been remarked that slavery inflicted much greater 
injuries upon the white people of the South than upon the negroes. 

513. Colonization. — Previous to the year 1820 (l[ 447) the ques- 
tion of slavery was treated almost entirely as a local matter, and 
attracted but little attention either in the free or the slave States. In 
1808, the first date at which the Constitution permitted it, a law 
went into effect, forbidding the importation of negroes from Africa, 
or, in other words, abolishing the foreign slave-trade. In 1811 the 
American Colonization Society was formed, whose purpose was to 
send back the free blacks to Africa. The 

section to which they were to be sent 
was called Liberia, and a small settle- 
ment of these negroes was eventually 
formed at that place. The matter was, 
however, wholly voluntary, and, as the 
number of free blacks in the South was 
very small, the society had very little 
success in its philanthropic design. The 
antislavery societies formed a few years 
later vigorously opposed the coloniza- 
tion idea, and weakened the usefulness 
of the society. 

514. Equal Representation. — When 
the first real struggle over slavery came, 
in 1820 (it 448), it turned on the ques- 
tion of the admission of free and slave 
States. For many years it had been 
the custom to admit simultaneously 
free and slave States. After 1820, the 
twelve free and the twelve slave States seemed to work together 
in harmony, believing that the Missouri Compromise had finally set- 
tled the troublesome dispute. For ten years the whole nation 
remained quiet ; and when the fire blazed up again in 183 1, it was not 
over the question of the admission of States. 

515. Abolition. — In 1831 an insurrection broke out among the 
slaves in Virginia. The State authorities very easily quelled the 
rebellion, although the disturbance spread over nearly the whole 
State. Slave-owners were everywhere badly frightened, and many 



Henry Clay, the " Great Compro- 
miser," was born in Virginia, April 
i2th, 1777. A member of the Ken- 
tucky legislature in 1803, he was made 
its speaker in 1808. He was elected 
to the House of Representatives, and 
was chosen Speaker in 181 1. He 
became at once the leader of the war 
party, and in 1814 was one of the 
commissioners to negotiate the treaty 
of peace. Mr. Clay was, later, again 
made Speaker of the House, was 
Secretary of State under President 
Adams, was member of the Senate, 
and was three times an unsuccessful 
candidate for the Presidency. He 
died July 29th, 1852. Mr. Clay, by 
his various compromise measures, was 
able to ward off, for the time, serious 
dangers from the country. In 1S20, 
he presented the Missouri Compro- 
mise; in 1833, he prepared the Com- 
promise Tariff; and in his old age, 
he introduced the Compromise of 1850. 
He was the most enthusiastic advocate 
of the "American System" and tlie 
leader of the Whig party. 



270 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1832- 1835 



harsh laws were passed throughout the slave States to prevent a 
possible repetition. At about the same time moral sentiment 
against slavery itself began to be shown in the North. This new 
abolition movement was principally inaugurated by William Lloyd 
Garrison, who edited and printed an antislavery weekly newspaper, 
called ''The Liberator." Garrison's purpose was to awaken an 
interest in a movement to remove slavery from the country. No 
obstacle, no constitutional hindrance, no claim to damages from 
the slave-owner, ought, in his judgment, to delay immediate 
emancipation. 

516. AntisUvery Societies. — The first society formed for the 
direct purpose of fighting slavery was the New England Antislavery 

Society, established in 1832, and the 
second, the American Antislavery 
Society, was started the same year. 
The membership in these and similar 
organizations was greatly stimulated 
in 1833 by the act of the British gov- 
ernment in emancipating the eight 
hundred thousand slaves in the Brit- 
ish West Indies. Nevertheless, the 
societies remained comparatively 
small, the majority of the Northern 
people seeing no constitutional way 
of abolishing slavery, and disliking 
to awaken any hostility between the 
sections. The opposition to the 
movement, even in the free States, was very great. Meetings of 
the societies were frequently broken up, the presses, on which anti- 
slavery documents were printed, were destroyed, and in October, 
1835, a J^ob in Boston attacked Mr. Garrison, and probably would 
have severely injured him, had he not taken refuge in a jail. 

517. Petitions. — The sending of antislavery tracts through the 
mails into the South caused great indignation among the Southern 
leaders. The presenting of petitions to Congress, asking for the 
abolition of slavery, resulted in what was called the *' Gag Rule." 
The advocates of slavery succeeded in passing a resolution through 
Congress refusing to receive any such abolition petitions. This was 







William Lloyd Garrison. 

(From a photograph in the possession of his son.) 



1837-1844] THE GROWTH OF THE SLAVERY AGITATION. 27 1 



a mistake on their part. Many, who had refused to join the anti- 
slavery societies, were much incensed at this denial of what they 
called the '' sacred right of petition." Not only did the membership 
of the abolition societies grow rapidly, but the number of the peti- 
tions increased to a remarkable extent, and, although not officially 
read in Congress, obtained the desired result of arousing the atten- 
tion of the country. John Quincy Adams did the best work of his 
life in his service, though an ex-President, as a member of the House 
of Representatives, where he constantly fought for the " Right of 
Petition," although he himself was not in favor of immediate aboli- 
tion. It was a great victory for him 

when, in 1844, the *' Gag Law" was ^ ' ^ 

repealed, after having been on the 
statute-books for eight years. 

518. Later Antislavery Movements. 
— Though the methods pursued by 
Mr. Garrison and his most enthusi- 
astic supporters were not always 
wise or judicious, yet they resulted 
in awakening the North to a reali- 
zation of the evil of slavery. The 
murder of Elijah P. Lovejoy, in 
Alton, 111., in 1837, ^^^' printing abo- 
lition tracts and papers, caused a 
wave of indignation through the 
free States. Wendell Phillips, the 

''silver-tongued orator," took up the cause of the slave in 1837, 
and became one of the greatest of the abolition leaders. Mr. Adams 
was for a time the only man in Congress upon whom the agitators 
could rely, but in 1841 Ohio elected Joshua R. Giddings to the House 
of Representatives, and for many years this so-called " apostle ol 
liberty " upheld the cause of the despised slave in Congress. 

519. The Liberty Party. — In 1 840 the Liberty party was established 
In order to make the slavery question a political matter. It nomi- 
nated, as its candidate for the Presidency, James G. Birney, a former 
slave-owner, who had freed his slaves and removed to Michigan. 
The vote cast by this party was very small, scarcely large enough to 
be called anything but scattering. In 1844 the same candidate was 




Harriet Beecher Stowe. 



272 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1852 

again nominated, and obtained a larger vote than before. The result 
proved a disaster to the antislavery cause, as the vote of the Liberty 
party in New York State practically resulted in the election of Mr. 
Polk, the admission of Texas, the war with Mexico, and the pur- 
chase of New Mexico and California, all of which the slavery 
leaders desired. 

520. " Uncle Tom's Cabin." — However much the lovers of the 
Union may have desired to keep the troublesome question of slavery 
out of Congress, it proved to be an impossibility. The admission of 
Texas, the Wilmot Proviso, and the Mexican purchase, all tended to 
keep the matter before the public. The compromise of 1850 was 
adopted in the hope that the agitation would now cease, but the 
Fugitive-Slave Law had a directly opposite effect. The publication of 
Mrs. Stowe's ** Uncle Tom's Cabin," in 1852, greatly increased the 
moral opposition to slavery. It told the story of some of the worst 
phases of slave life, and won the sympathies of thousands of North- 
erners who could not have been interested in any other way. From 
this time on, no other issue of importance came before the people, 
and the struggle between slavery* and freedom was destined to 
continue until one or the other should finally become supreme. 



CHAPTER LXVin. 

KANSAS AND NEBRASKA. 1853-1857. 

521. Stephen A. Douglas. — One of the new leaders of the politics 
of the day was Stephen A. Douglas, a senator from Illinois. He 
was a Democrat from a free State, and desired to do something that 
would bring to an end the discussions over the slavery question. 
With this purpose in view he proposed in the Senate a bill organiz- 
ing the two territories of Kansas and Nebraska, leaving to the people 
of those territories the right to decide whether, as territories, they 
should sanction or prohibit slavery. This bill was called the Kansas- 
Nebraska Act, and was passed by Congress after a bitter fight. 

522. The Struggle for Kansas. — It was hoped by the friends of this 
bill that by it the slavery question would be removed from Congress, 



1854] 



KANSAS AND NEBRASKA. 



2/3 



Franklin Pierce was born at Hills- 
borough, New Hampshire, November 
23cl, 1S04. After he was graduated from 
Bowdoin he studied law, and was ad- 
mitted to the bar in 1827. Here he 
took high rank. Mr. Pierce served 
in the House from 1833 to 1835, and in 
the Senate from 1837 to 1843. At the 
outbreak of the war with Mexico, he 
enlisted as a volunteer, but was soon 
raised to the rank of colonel, and 
later to that of brigadier-general. 
Pierce was a zealous Democrat, and 
belonged to the proslavery wing of that 
party. He died October 8A, 1869. 



and that the people of each territory would settle the matter for 
themselves. As the first settlers wc^e often called *' Squatters," 
this plan received the name of ** Squatter Sovereignty." The indig- 
nation aroused in the North was very great, as all this land, which 

seemed in danger of being made into 
slave States, had, by the Missouri Com- 
promise, been set apart for freedom. 
Movements were at once made in both 
North and South to send settlers into 
the new territory. As the Territory 
of Kansas lay to the south of Nebraska, 
its soil seemed better suited for slavery, 
and here the struggle began. 

523. The Emigrant Aid Society.— The 
first to arrive in Kansas was a band of 
slaveholders from just across the border 
of the neighboring State of Missouri. They made a settlement 
at Atchison, which became the headquarters of the slavery party. 
A little later the Emigrant Aid So- 
ciety was formed in New England, 
and help was given to any North- 
erner willing to migrate to the new 
territory. When the time for the 
first elections came on, great excite- 
ment naturally arose, and many of 
the inhabitants of Missouri came 
into Kansas simply to vote, and 
then returned to their homes. By 
means of such frauds a proslavery 
legislature was elected, and for a 
time the Free-State party lost its 
opportunity. 

524. The '^Border War." — The 
Free-State party in the territory 
made another attempt to keep slavery from the State, and held a 
convention which formed a constitution and applied to Congress for 
admission as a free State. The House of Representatives at Wash- 
ington voted to admit the State of Kansas with this Topeka Con- 

iS 




Stephen A. Douglas. 

(From a negative in tlie possession of tlie U. S. 
Government.) 



2 74 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1856 



Stephen Arnold Douglas, the au- 
thor of the doctrine of " Squatter Sov- 
ereignty," was born in Vermont in 
1813. In 1834 he was admitted to the 
Illinois bar^ and at once received polit- 
ical preferment. In 1843 he was elected 
to Congress, and took active part in the 
measures which secured to the United 
States Oregon and Texas. He was an 
ardent Unionist, and in 1861 denounced 
secession as criminal. He was an elo- 
quent orator, his most noted speeches 
being made in his contest with Lincoln. 
He died June 3d, 1861, 



stitution, but the Senate refused to concur. The territory was thus 
left to its own resources, and a civil war began which continued for 
several years. Murders and assassinations became frequent, towns 
were attacked and burned or pillaged, and a period of terror ensued. 
The wrong-doing was not confined to 
one party, though the proslavery party 
was perhaps the more violent in its 
attacks. In 1857 the Free-State faction 
obtained a majority of the territorial 
legislature, and, though the border war- 
fare still continued, the cause of slavery 
was destroyed in Kansas forever. 

525. The Anti-Nebraska Party. — An 
effect of the Kansas-Nebraska Act which 
had not been expected by its friends was 
the formation of a strong party to resist the encroachments of 
slavery. At first it consisted only of those elements of the existing 
parties opposed to the act. The opponents of the Nebraska Bill 

were those who had been Northern 

Whigs and Democrats and mem- 
bers of the Free-Soil party. Their 
success in the elections of 1854 
resulted in the formation soon after 
of a national party, which presented 
a candidate for President at the elec- 
tion of 1856. 

526. Charles Sumner. ~ During 
the struggle which took place in 
Congress at the time of the civil 
war in Kansas, Charles Sumner, 
Senator from Massachusetts, made 
several strong and bitter speeches 
against the slavery party. One of 
those who was especially mentioned, 
but who was absent at the time, was Senator Butler, of South 
Carolina. A day or two later, his nephew, Preston S. Brooks, a 
representative, entered the Senate-chamber, and approaching Sen- 
ator Sumner from behind, suddenly began beating him on the head 




Charles Sumner. 

(From a negative in the possession of the U. S. 
Government.) 



I854-I856] 



KANSAS AND NEBRASKA. 



275 



Charles Sumner, for twenty-four 
years senator from Massachusetts, was 
born at Boston, January 6th, i8n. He 
was graduated from Harvard Univer- 
sity in 1830, and four years later was 
admitted to the bar. In 1850 he was 
sent to the Senate, where he remained 
until his death, March nth, 1874. He 
was one of the great leaders among the 
Free-Soilers, and one of the founders 
of the Republican party. Mr. Sumner 
held very pronounced views on the 
policy of reconstruction. His re-elec- 
tion to the United States Senate in 
1856, at a time when he was compelled 
to travel for his health, showed the 
estimation in which he was held at 



with a thick cane which he carried. This unprovoked attack, 
which seriously and almost fatally injured the Senator, caused great 

indignation at the North. Massachu- 

setts re-elected Mr. Sumner, although 
he was unable for several years to take 
his seat in the Senate. Brooks resigned 
his position, but his district unani- 
mously re-elected him to Congress. 

527. Commodore Perry. — In contrast 
with this internal struggle was the effort 
made by Commodore Perry to open 
the ports of Japan to American com- 
merce. That country had not, for cen- 
turies, allowed any foreigners to enter 
the territory, and therefore had been 
almost unknown to the civilized world. 
The Japanese, with a civilization peculiar to themselves, considered 

all other nations little more than dreaded 
barbarians. Perry entered their ports 
with a fleet of steamers, and succeeded 
in convincing the people that he and 
his men, at least, were not barbarians ; 
and he obtained from the government 
concessions which resulted a few years 
later in the formation of a treaty with 
the United States permitting our vessels 
to trade in their ports. 

528. Presidential Election. — A fear 
that the foreign element would obtain 
a controlling position in politics resulted 
in the formation of an American party. 
This was commonly called the " Know- 
Nothing" party, and was based on the 
principle that no foreigner should be 
elected to office. It nominated ex- 
President Fillmore for President, but 
in the election was only able to carry Maryland. The Republican 
party formed by the opponents of the Kansas-Nebraska Act was 



Martin Koszta.— Since the War 
of 1S12, England has not exercised her 
so-called " right of search and impress- 
ment," and thus has tacitly acknowl- 
edged the justice of the position of the 
United States. During Pierce's ad- 
ministration, another claim of the 
United States was made, granted, and 
forever settled in her favor. A Hun- 
garian, Martin Koszta by name, had 
fled to the United States, and had 
taken out his first naturalization papers. 
Later, while in the iiarbor of Smyrna, 
a Turkish city, he was arrested and 
confined on an Austrian man-of-war. 
Captain Ingraham, of the American 
navy, threatened to cannonade the 
Austrian frigate unless the American 
citizen was set free. After some con- 
siderable official intercourse the de- 
mand was granted, and Koszta was 
permitted to return to the United 
States. By common consent, since 
that time, naturalized citizens have 
been granted in foreign countries all 
the rights of native Americans. 



276 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1857 

now fully organized, and it nominated as its candidates John C. 
Fremont of California and William L. Dayton of New Jersey. 
The Democratic candidates were James Buchanan of Pennsylvania 
and John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. The Democrats were suc- 
cessful in the contest, carrying 174 votes to 114 for Fremont. 



CHAPTER LXIX. 

SECESSION. 1857-1861. 

529. Dred Scott. — Immediately upon the inauguration of President 
Buchanan, March 4th, 1857, the slavery question, which Mr. Douglas 
had hoped was settled by the Kansas-Nebraska Act, showed itself 

still the live issue of the day. An 
important decision of the Supreme 
Court gave even more alarm to the 
antislavery element than any previous 
action in the history of the govern- 
ment. Dred Scott was a Missouri slave 
who had claimed his freedom because 
his master had previously taken him 
into a free State. The matter came 
up by appeal to the United States Su- 
preme Court, which decided that he was not a citizen, and therefore 
had no standing In courts of law. The Supreme Court also ren- 
dered decisions that affected the whole status of the negro. In sub- 
stance, the negro was judged to be no more than property, and 
therefore the same protection must be accorded by the United 
States to slave as to any other personal property. This decision 
would seem to outdo even the Kansas-Nebraska Act, as by it 
citizens might carry their slaves into any of the territories. 

530. Kansas Again. — Strong pressure was brought to bear upon 
Congress to admit Kansas to the Union with what was called the 
Lecompton Constitution. This had been framed by the proslavery 
legislature of the Territory just before its term expired, and contained 
a clause permitting slavery. Congress realized, however, that the 



James Buchanan was born in 
Franklin County, Pennsylvania, in 
i79i,and died in 1S68. He was a mem- 
ber of Congress from 1820 to 1831; 
minister to Russia, 1832 to 1834-, and 
senator, 1834 to 1845. During tbe ad- 
ministration of President Polk, he was 
Secretary of State. In 1853, President 
Pierce appointed him minister to Eng- 
land. On his return from England, he 
was nominated as the Democratic can- 
didate for President. 



1858] 



SECESSION. 



277 



Minnesota, or the " Gopher State," 
was first settled in 18 19, though the 
French esiabHshed trading-posts there 
in 1680 Most of the Territory was ob- 
tained by the Louisiana purcliase, but 
the part east of the Mississippi River 
was a portion of the Northwest Terri- 
tory. The leading industry of the State 
is agriculture, but the advantages for 
manufacturing industries are excellent. 
It has had the usual rapid growth in 
population, gaining from six thousand 
in 1850 to seventeen hundred thou- 
sand in 1900. 



majority of the inhabitants did not desire the Lecompton Constitu- 
tion, and failed to pass the bill. Not until January 29th, 1861, and 
after the secession of six Southern States (Tl 535), was Kansas ad- 
mitted to the Union. Meanwhile, Minnesota, May nth, 1858 and 
Oregon, February 14th, 1859, were ad- 
mitted as free States. 

531. Lincoln and Douglas. — The posi- 
tion of the two parties in the North on 
the slavery question in 1858 can be 
quite well shown by what were called 
the Lincoln-Douglas debates. These 
two citizens of Illinois were rival candi- 
dates for election to the United States 
Senate, and during the campaign the 
two men made a series of speeches from 
the same platforms. Mr. Douglas had the difficult task of trying 
to reconcile the Dred Scott decision with his own doctrine of 
" Squatter Sovereignty," and proved himself a strong representative 
of the northern wing of the Democratic party. 

Abraham Lincoln (IT 550) took the ground of the moderate anti- 
slavery men, in opposition both to Douglas in the Kansas-Nebraska 

Act, and to Chief-Justice Taney in the 
Dred Scott decision. He showed himself 
an able opponent of the great orator, 
and his brilliant speeches brought him 
before the public as a strong candidate 
for the nomination of the Republican 
party for President. Mr. Douglas was 
elected senator, but by so small a ma- 
jority as to weaken his chances of ever 
attaining the Presidency. 

532. John Brown. — While legislative 
and judicial proceedings on the slavery question were keeping the 
people on the tiptoe of expectancy, a foolhardy attempt to obtain 
immediate freedom for the slaves rendered the excitement more 
intense. John Brown had been one of the most zealous of the anti- 
slavery settlers of Kansas, and had been compelled to flee from the 
Territory with a price on his head. Later he conceived the idea of 



Oregon. — The region called Ore- 
gon, the cause of so much discussion 
between the United States and Great 
Britain, was given a territorial govern- 
ment in 1848. On the admission of Or- 
egon, the rest of the Territory was re- 
organized, and called Washington. 
Agriculture and manufactures are in a 
flourishing condition, but the most 
interesting industry is the salmon-fish- 
ing in the Columbia River. The pop- 
ulation of the "Beaver State" is over 
four hundred thousand. 



278 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1859-1860 

freeing and arming some slaves and starting an insurrection, prob- 
ably with the hope of frightening the South into granting the slaves 
their freedom. 

In the execution of his plan, on the i6th of October, 1859, Brown 
and his sons captured the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, 

on the Potomac River, and armed a 
few negroes. He was easily over- 
powered, and after a speedy trial by a 



Kansas. — The history of Kansas as 
a Territory forms a very important part 
of the history of the United States. The 
soil and climate of the " Sunflower 
State " are well adapted to the agricul- 
turist, the fruit-grower, and the stock- 
raiser. Available water-power is one 
of the most valuable possessions of 
Kansas. The numerous railroads of 
the State give abundant opportunity 
for transportation to eastern markets. 
The population of Kansas is about a 
million a«d a half. 



Virginia court was hanged as a " traitor." 



Though very few, even of the most 
ardent abolitionists, sympathized with 
Brown in his attempt, the South was 
unable to realize the true situation. 
The Southerners were afraid of slave 
insurrections, and did not attempt to 
conceal their hatred of the abolitionists 
of the North. They failed to perceive that there were few who 
desired immediate abolition of slavery and fewer still who ap- 
proved of any insurrection for that purpose. All antislavery men 
were classed by them as abolitionists, and Southern Democrats 
had only scorn and contempt for the '^ Black Republicans," as they 
afterward called them. 

533. The Campaign of 1860. — ^The political divisions in i860 were 
based upon the different views on the question of extension or 
restriction of slavery. The Democratic 
party could not unite upon a candidate, 
and split into two wings. The strong 
proslavery men met and nominated 
Vice-President John C. Breckinridge 
for President. The more moderate men 
of the party met in a separate conven- 
tion and nominated Stephen A. Doug- 
las. The Republicans chose Abraham 
Lincoln of Illinois and Hannibal Hamlin of Maine to head their 
ticket. The break among the Democrats, together with the pres- 
ence of a fourth party, gave the Republicans a great advantage, 
and Lincoln and Hamlin received 180 of the votes cast by the 
303 electors. They carried every Northern State except a por- 



A New Party. — A convention 
held by the conservative men of all 
parties, who desired to ignore the 
whole troublesome question, adopted 
a platform which demanded merely 
the upholding of the Constitution, the 
Union, and the laws. This was called ' 
the " Constitutional Union " party, and 
had John Bell of Tennessee as its 
candidate. 



i860] 



SECESSION. 



279 



tion of New Jersey, while Brcckcnrldge obtained most of the 
Southern States. The Constitutional Union party carried three 
of the border States, while Douglas received but twelve electoral 
votes. 

534. The Effect upon the South. — Mr. Lincoln was the first candi- 
date ever elected President by the votes of a section, and also the 
first to be elected on a distinctively antislavery platform. The fear 
and hatred that the Southern leaders had for the abolitionists and the 




Harper's Ferry. 

" Black Republicans" made their disappointment at the result of the 
election almost unbearable. The advocates of slavery thought that 
the Republican party would leave no stone unturned to deprive them 
of their established institution, and therefore decided that the time 
had come to take very radical measures for the preservation oi 
slavery. 

535. Secession. — When South Carolina received the news of the 
election of Lincoln, its legislature called a State convention, which 
pn December 20th, 1860, passed an ordinance of " secession," This act 



28o 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1861 




Jefferson Davis. 

(From a photograph in the possession of his family.) 



repealed the former acts of the State in ratifying the Constitution of 
the United States, and declared the connection of South Carolina 

with the rest of the Union at an end. 
Within two months, Georgia, Florida, 
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and 
Texas had followed the lead of South 
Carolina and had " seceded " from 
the Union. 

536. ** Confederate States." — It was 
not the plan of the secessionists that 
each of the Southern States should 
exist as an independent nation. In 
February, 1861, a convention was 
held in Montgomery, Alabama, con- 
sisting of delegates from the "seced- 
ing " States, which formed a new 
Union, called the ''Confederate States 
of America." Jefferson Davis of 
Mississippi was chosen President, and Alexander H. Stephens of 
Georgia Vice-President of the Confederacy. One of the essential 
features of the Constitution adopted in 
March was the section which forbade 
forever any attempt to emancipate the 
slaves. 

537. President Buchanan. — The effect 
of this extreme action of the Southern 
States upon the country as a whole 
was such as almost to paralyze the gov- 
ernment. Southern leaders daily left 
Washington; Southern officers were 
continually giving up their commis- 
sions in the army. The materials of 
war that had been gradually carried 
into the Southern States were every- 
where confiscated, and United States 
forts and arsenals were turned over to the State governments. Pres- 
ident Buchanan was surrounded by Southern advisers, and was 
unable to decide what ought to be done under the existing circum- 



Jefferson Davis, the President of 
the Confederate States, was born in 
Kentucky, Jnne 3d, 1808. He was 
graduated from West Point in 1828, 
resigned liis commission in 1835, and 
entered Congress in 1845, but soon 
joined General Taylor's army in Mex- 
ico. He was elected senator in 1847. 
He became President Pierce's Secre- 
tary of War, and in 1S57 was returned 
to the Senate. He left that body, 
January 21st, 1861, after announcing 
the secession of his State, Mississippi. 
Mr. Davis was imprisoned in Fortress 
Monroe for two years after the war 
was over, but was then released with- 
out trial. After 1867 he lived very 
quietly at his home in MississippL 
He died at New Orleans, Dec. 6, 1889. 



I825-I832] 



CHRONOLOGY. 



281 



Alexander Hamilton Stephens, 
the Vice-President of the Confederacy, 
was born in Georgia, February iitli, 
i8i2. Mr. Stephens suffered much 
from ill-health, but he overcame all 
difficulties, and obtained high posi- 
tions, both in politics and in the law. 
He was a member of Congress from 
1843 to 1859, at first as a Whig, but 
later as a Democrat, because of the 
slavery struggle. Mr. Stephens was 
very much opposed to secession, but 
he went with his State, considering his 
allegiance to Georgia higher than that 
due to the nation. He died March 
4th, 1883. 



stances. He did not believe that the States had a right to withdraw 
from the Union, yet he did not think that the national government 
had the right to use force to compel any State to remain in the 
Union. He thought that Congress ought 
to pass some acts which would satisfy 
the Southern leaders, and would induce 
them to come back. As a result, no 
decision was reached during the remain- 
ing months of his administration. The 
President reconstructed his cabinet, and 
more careful attention was paid to the 
war and navy departments of the na- 
tional government. The Washington 
authorities and the country at large 
seemed simply waiting for the 4th of 
March, and the inauguration of the new 
President. When that time came, the only practical possessions 
of the national government in the seven seceding States were 
the three fortifications, — Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, Fort 
Pickens at Pensacola, and Key West. 



CHRONOLOGY. 



1825. 



1826. 

1827. 
1828. 

1829. 

1830. 
1831. 
1832. 



Creek Treaty, February 12. 

J. Q. Adams inaugurated President, March 4. 

Completion of the Erie Canal. 

Panama Congress. 

Deaths of Jefferson and Adams, July 4. 

Cherokee Troubles in Georgia. 

Tariff of abominations. 

Formation of new parties. 

Jackson inaugurated President, March 4. 

Introduction of the spoils system. 

Webster-Hayne debate, January. 

Establishment of the "Liberator." 

United States Bank charter vetoed. 

New protective tariff. 

Nullification Ordinance of South Carolina, November. 



282 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1833-1851 



1833. Compromise tariff. 
Removal of the deposits. 
First American locomotive. 

1834. Invention of the reaping-machine. 

1835. Seminole war begins. 

1836. Manufacture of friction matches. 
Anthracite coal used for making steam. 

1837. Van Buren inaugurated President, March 4. 
Financial crisis. 

Murder of Love joy. 

1838. Gag resolutions in Congress. 

1840. Sub-treasury established. 

1841. Harrison inaugurated President, March 4. 
Death of President Harrison, April 4. 

1842. New tariff act. 
Ashburton treaty. 
Dorr Rebellion. 

1844. The Princeton explosion. 
First electric telegraph. 
Patroon War. 

1845. Annexation of Texas, March. 

Polk inaugurated President, March 4. 

1846. Oregon treaty. 
New tariff act. 
Sub-treasury re-established, 
Palo Alto, May 8. 

Resaca de la Palma, May 9. 
Declaration of war, May 13. 
Conquest of California. 
Conquest of New Mexico. 
Monterey, September 24. 

1847. Buena Vista, February 22, 25. 
Vera Cruz, March 29. 
Cerro Gordo, April 18. 
Cherubusco, August 20. 
Chapultepec, September 12, 13. 
Capture of Mexico, September 14. 

1848. Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, February 2. 
Discovery of gold. 

1849. Taylor inaugurated President, March 5. 
Immigration to California. 

1850. Death of President Taylor, July 9. 
Compromise of 1850, September. 
Fugitive-Slave Law. 

1851. Prohibition in Maine, 



I853-I86I] 



CHRONOLOGY. 



283 



1853. 



1854. 



1855 
1856. 
1857 



1858. 

1859. 
1860. 

1861. 



Pierce inaugurated President, March 4.. 

Gadsden purchase, December 30. 

The Martin Koszta case. 

Treaty with Japan, March 21. 

Reciprocity treaty with Great Britain. 

Kansas-Nebraska bill. 

Formation of the RepubHcan Party. 

Assault on Sumner. 

Buchanan inaugurated President, March 4. 

Dred Scott decision. 

Commercial distress. 

First Atlantic cable. 

Mormons overpowered by the National government. 

Lincoln-Douglas debate. 

John Brown's raid, October 16. 

Lincoln elected President. 

South Carolina " Secession " Convention. December 20. 

Secession of six other States. 

Confederate Convention at Montgomery, February 4. 




Tile Confederd+e Flag of 1861, 



■Blacfiboarti iSnalviSi^- 



President 



Lincoln ..... 1861-1865 



War in the East 



Fort Sumter. 

Bull Run. 

Monitor and Merrimac. 

Peninsular Campaign. 

Antietam. 

Fredericksburg. 

Chancellorsville 

Gettysburg. 

The Wilderness. 

Petersburg Campaign. 

P^ALL of Richmond. 

Surrender at Appomattox. 



\%-nt m the West 



r Forts Henry and Donelson. 

Shiloh. 

Mississippi. 

Vicksburg. 

Chattanooga. 

Atlanta. 

Sherman's March. 
L Surrender of Johnston. 



Results of the "War 



The Trent Affair. 

Alabama. 

Emancipation. 

Revenue. 

Amendments. 

Assassination. 



New States 



r West V irginia 1863 

1 Nevada 1864 




'<>•• Svmti' .....tar 



SECTION XI. 
THE NATION ASSURED. 1861-1865. 



CHAPTER LXX. 



THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH. 



538. War or Peace? — What would be the result of the attempt 
of the Southern States to establish a new confederacy ? A large 
proportion of the Southern people felt assured that the Union, or 
the North, as they chose to call what remained of the Union, would 
peacefully permit the separation. If any attempt should be made to 
resort to force to compel the States to return, it would be feeble 
and easily overcome. A few, like their Vice-President Stephens, 
felt otherwise, and urged a careful counting of the cost of the war, 
which they saw was inevitable. 

539. Numbers. — If war should come, what were the prospects? 
Had the North or the South more of the things necessary for a suc- 
cessful prosecution of the war.? The population of the Union in 
i860 was more than thirty millions. Of this number, less than 
one-third were in the seceding States, and, omitting the slaves from 
the account, hardly one-fifth. In other words, the North, or the 
Union, could probably furnish three or four times as many soldiers 
as could the Confederacy. 

540. Soldiers. — The contest with Mexico was the only real school 
in which the Americans had learned the art of war. Most of the sol- 
diers and nearly all of the commanders had been men from the South- 
ern States. Besides, a large proportion of the officers, who, trained 
at West Point, had remained in the army, were from the South, and 
"went with their States." The North had a considerable militia 



286 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1861 

force, but it was badly organized, and not greatly to be depended 
upon. Southern slave-owners were well adapted for soldiers, while 
the commercial and mercantile men of the North were perhaps less 
military. Thus it seemed ; but in fact it would be a case of " Greek 
meeting Greek. " No such soldiers as would make up the bulk of 
the armies on both sides had ever been known. 

541. Implements of War. — A sufficient number of good soldiers 
and officers is not the only necessity for carrying on a successful 
war. It is necessary to furnish the army with implements of war, 
food and clothing, and also to provide for the nation as a whole, sc 
long as the war shall last. Machine-shops and foundries the Nortl 
had in abundance, while the South had scarcely one within hei 
borders. Nearly half the guns and ammunition belonging to th( 
United States had been seized by the Confederate States ; but in 2 
short time the Union could more than replace what she had lost, 
while it would take months before the Confederacy could make the 
needed implements of war. Meanwhile they must be purchased 
from abroad should it prove possible to obtain them at all. 

542. Provisions. — The Southern States were agricultural rather 
than manufacturing, but the crops which they were in the habit of 
raising would prove of very little use in supporting an army. It 
would be of no advantage to raise cotton or tobacco if the Union 
should blockade the Southern ports, and decrease, if not prohibit, 
the exportation of these commodities. All the food, clothing, and 
domestic supplies, which the South had been in the habit of pur- 
chasing from the North, must be obtained at home or from abroad, 
while the North would continue to be able to produce these sup- 
plies as in the past. Perhaps the only argument on the other side, 
and this a strong one, lay in the fact that more Southern men could 
enter the army, as they could leave the slaves to till the fields. 

543. Railroads. — Since 1825 a remarkable change had taken 
place in the means of transportation. The invention of the steam 
railroad (l[ 475) and the opening of the first passenger railway in 
America about 1828 had revolutionized the modes of travel. A 
complete system of railroads would be found necessary in carrying 
on this coming struggle, and the Union only was well prepared in 
this direction. Not only were there more railroads in the North, 
but also all the manufactories of rails, cars, and locomotives were in 



l86l] THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH. 287 

the control of the Union. Another invention which was to revolu- 
tionize the whole system of warfare was that of the electric tele- 
graph (IF 486). Telegraph lines would follow every railroad, and 
speedily carry despatches from one commander to another. 

544. The Navy. — The ships of war were for the most part in the 
hands of the Confederacy in 1861, but new vessels would soon be 
needed. Not only did the Union have ship-yards in abundance, but 
Northern merchants owned many vessels, and these could be trans- 
formed into frigates. The South would be unable to obtain an ad- 
ditional fleet, unless by purchase from abroad, and perhaps foreign 
nations would fear the ill-will of the United States. 

545. Capital. — The South, it will be seen, must inaugurate many 
new lines of industry, if it were compelled to carry on a war of great 
length. It had but little capital and no money. Both must be ob- 
tained before it could become an independent nation. The Union 
was wealthy, abounding in capital, possessing gold and silver mines 
in abundance, and dependent upon no other country for supplies. 
Its mines were well developed, and its capital was invested in the 
manufacture of the necessities of war as well as of life. 

546. Illiteracy. — In war, as in other employments, the character 
of the participants must be taken into account. The free schools oi 
the North had rendered the common people different from those 
of the South. In one of the Northern States only fifteen out of 
every ten thousand persons were unable to read or write, while in 
a Southern State of nearly the same population this class of illit- 
erates included nearly ninety out of every ten thousand. Besides, 
there were in the South three and a half million slaves, most of 
whom were kept in dense ignorance. Among the advantages which 
could be found on the side of the Union, this was not one of the least. 

547. Summary. — If the war should come, it was evident to the 
thoughtful statesmen of the day that each side would have certain 
advantages. The North had a larger population, while the South 
had more experienced generals and soldiers, and could send a larger 
proportion of men to the army. Though the Confederacy had, at the 
beginning, a much larger stock of guns, ships, and ammunition, 
the Union had an immense advantage in being able to manufacture 
the necessities of war. Railroads and telegraphs could more easily 
be made to aid the United States, while the Confederate States 



i88 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1861 



would probably have the advantage of fighting at home, as the war 
must necessarily, for a time, at least, be within their borders. The 
greater amount of illiteracy in the South would prove an injury to 
her, and she would suffer the most from actual contact with the 
realities of war. It were surely well for her to proceed carefully 
before entering upon such a struggle as must inevitably follow. 



CHAPTER LXXI. 



THE FALL OF SUMTER. . 



548. The Problem. — President Lincoln was inaugurated March 
4th, 1861. The task imposed upon him was no ordinary one. Seven 

of the States had seceded 



and formed a new gov- 
ernment, taking the 
name "The Confederate 
States of America." 
The sentiment in these 
States had been rapidly 
crystallizing in favor of 
an independent Confed- 
eracy. The sentiment 
at the North had not yet 
become thoroughly uni- 
fied. A strong opposi- 
tion existed in many 
quarters against com- 
pelling these States to 
remain in the Union. 

549. Lincoln's Inaugu- 
ral. — Mr. Lincoln, in 
his inaugural address, 
stated clearly that it be- 
came his duty to preserve 
He said that the Federal laws must be 




Abraham Lincoln. 
(Copyright, iSgi.by M. P. Rice. From a negative made in 1864.) 



the union of the States. 



i86i] 



THE FALL OF SUMTER. 



289 



iong the walls of this ancient fortifica- 



tion could withstand the severe can- 
nonade. The bombardment continued 
through the day. 

551. Sumter surrenders. — On the 
morning of the 13th the cannonading 
was simply terrific. A concentrated 
fire of shot and shell from the whole 
line of Confederate fortifications fell 
upon Fort Sumter, making huge breaches in its walls, and at last 
setting fire to the woodwork in the fort. There was no alternative. 
Brave Major Anderson ordered the United States flag to be lowered. 
The Confederates allowed him and his men to march out with the 
honors of war, and to carry their flag with them. The fort was 
ruined, but no life had been lost on either side. 

19 



obeyed in all sections of our territory, and that it was his purpose 
to collect the public revenues at the ports of the seceded States, 
and to recover the forts and arsenals which belonged to the Federal 
government in those States. 

550. The Attack on Fort Sumter. — Fort Sumter, opposite Charleston, 
was held by about one hundred soldiers under command of Major 
Robert Anderson. The Confederates 
gathered a force of five or six thousand 
men under command of General G. T. 
Beauregard, and occupied the other forts 
and batteries around Charleston Har- 
bor. They erected strong earthworks, 
and put many pieces of artillery in posi- 
tion to reduce Fort Sumter. Beaure- 
gard sent a demand to Major Anderson 
to surrender, or rather to withdraw from 
the fort. Major Anderson refused to 
comply. On the morning of April 12th, 
1861, fire was opened by the Confeder- 
ates from all the batteries facing Fort 
Sumter. It was merely a question how 
long one hundred men could hold out 
against this overpowering force, and how 



Abraham Lincoln, the sixteenth 
President of the United States, was 
born in Kentucky, February 12th, iSog. 
As a boy, he was so situated that he 
received almost no school instruction, 
and he said of himself, "The little 
advance I now have upon this store of 
education I have picked up from time 
to time under the pressure of neces- 
sity." In 1834 he was elected to the 
Illinois Legislature, where he remained 
eight years. While in the legislature, 
Mr. Lincoln completed his study of 
law, and in 1836 was admitted to the 
bar. In 1846 he was chosen a member 
of the United States House of Repre- 
sentatives, but was not re-elected to 
this position. No boy or girl in the 
United States should reach maturity 
without reading a life of President 
Lincoln. No brief summary can give 
any idea of the character of the man 
who guided the nation through its great 
peril. Mr. Nicolay, his biographer, 
has written, " History must accord him 
a rare sagacity in guiding a great people 
through the perils of a mighty revolu- 
tion, an admirable singleness of aim, 
a skilful discernment and courageous 
seizure of the golden moment to free 
his nation from the incubus of slavery, 
faithful adherence to law, and con- 
scientious moderation in the use of 
power, and a shining personal example 
of honesty and purity. As statesman, 
ruler, and liberator, civilization will 
hold his name in perpetual honor." 



290 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1861 



552. Great Excitement. — This attack upon the United States flag, 
and this capture of a United States fort, aroused the whole North. 
Civil war actually existed. Instantly the North was in a blaze of 
excitement. This one movement on the part of the South unified 
popular sentiment at the North. Conservatives and Radicals, Dem- 
ocrats and Republicans, alike called upon the national government 
to maintain its supremacy. All hearts beat as one. The effect at 
the South was similar. The die had been cast. The Confederates 
had attacked a Federal fort, and it had surrendered. Public senti- 
ment throughout the seceded States was equally united. The Con- 
federate government must be maintained. 

553. The Call for Troops. — On the 15th of April President Lincoln 
issued a proclamation calling for seventy-five thousand troops to 



nliuuMi'iiuuHill 




The Attack on Fort Sumter. 



serve for three months. The whole North responded with wonder- 
ful promptness. Thousands of the militia from the several States 
were quickly in motion toward Washington. On the 19th of April 
(^ 244) a regiment from Massachusetts marched through Baltimore 
oL its way to the capital. It was attacked by a mob, who threw 
pa./ing-stones and fired pistols at the soldiers. The soldiers re~ 
ti» ned the fire. Several were killed on each side. This was 



l86l] THE FALL OF SUMTER. 



291 



the first blood shed in the war. The effect of this contest was 
still further to unite public sentiment both at the North and at 
the South. 

554. The Struggle Imminent. — It was now clear to both parties 
that war could not be avoided. Few, however, had any proper real- 
ization of how severe or how protracted this war would be. Many 
prophesied that it would end in ninety days. The North could 
hardly believe that the South intended a long struggle. On the 
other hand, the South was confident that the North would yield in 
a short time, and allow them their separate government. In April, 
May, and June, Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee 
passed ordinances of secession, and joined the new Confederacy. 
In May the Confederate government was removed from Montgomery 
to Richmond, Virginia. 

555. Congress convenes. — On the 4th of July, 1861, the two 
houses of Congress assembled in extra session at the call of the 
President (H 387). They acted with the utmost promptness, and 
provided for raising an army of five hundred thousand men, and 
for increasing the strength and efficiency of the navy. Congress 
declared that the war must be prosecuted in order to sustain the 
integrity of the government. It was not to be carried on for con- 
quest, nor to interfere with the established institutions of the 
Southern States. The rights of the several States were to remain 
unimpaired, but all the resources of the government must be used 
to maintain the Constitution and preserve the union of all the 
States. 

556. The Gathering of the Armies. — In the early summer a great 
army of raw recruits gathered in the vicinity of Washington, and 
were placed in camps for daily instruction in military drill. In 
like manner large forces were accumulating in Richmond and 
northern Virginia to defend the South from aggressive movements 
from the North, and, if possible, to capture Washington and trans- 
fer the seat of the Confederate government to that place. 

557. The Blockade. — It was necessary for President Lincoln to 
blockade all the ports of the States which had seceded. This was 
a great undertaking. To begin with, he had but few vessels for 
the purpose. Others were soon bought or built, and the navy, after 
a time, "vas sufficiently large to make the blockade effective. The 



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i86i] 



THE FALL OF SUMTER. 



29: 



commerce of a coast nearly three thousand miles long was practically 
stopped; and the blockade was never broken till the war closed. 
Some swift steamers called blockade runners would occasionally 
get through the blockade in a storm or by night with cargoes of 
merchandise; but the greater number of such vessels was captured. 

558. Northern Impatience. — The people of the North were very 
impatient. They wished to push forward warlike operations speedily. 
The cry "On to Richmond!" was echoed and re-echoed by New 
York daily papers and elsewhere, until the government felt com- 
pelled to start the army upon an aggressive movement. Indeed, both 
sides were eager for the fight. This impatience of delay pervaded 
the minds of Congressmen, and they brought such a pressure to bear 
upon the government that General Scott (IT 492), who was in com- 
mand of the Union armies, unwillingly consented that the troops 
should make an advance from Washington toward the Confederate 
capital. General McDowell was placed in command of this army, 
and was directed to move his force 
into Virginia. On the i8th of July 
the Union army met the Confederate 
advance under General Longstreet, 
and the contest began. The Southern 
army was in command of Generals 
Beauregard and Joseph E. Johnston. 

559. The Battle of Bull Run. — 
On the 21st of July, 1861, the firsU 
great battle of the war was fought. 
It took place at a small stream 
called Bull Run. The place was 
near Manassas Junction, where Beau- 
regard was posted, with the larger 
part of the Southern army. The 
contest was a severe one. At first 
the advantage was with the Union 
army; but in the afternoon the Confederate general, Kirby Smith, 
with a fresh army from the Shenandoah Valley, joined Beauregard, 
and the advance of the Union army was attacked. A desperate strug- 
elc now ensued, and the severe onset of the Confederates caused a 
retreat of the Federals, which was soon converted into a rout; and 




General Joseph E. Johnston. 

(From a negative in the possession of the XT. S. 
Government.) 



294 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION, 



[l86l 



the Union army, panic-stricken, fled toward Washington in wild 
disorder. The Southern army had suffered so severely in this short 
and sharp battle that their generals were unable to push their 
advantage by an attack upon the capital. The Union soldiers were 
quickly rallied, reorganized, and put to further drill in preparation 
for the events which must follow. 

560. A New General. — General Winfield Scott had reached an 
extreme age, and it became necessary that a new commander should 

be selected. General George B. 
McClellan, who had won distinction 
by his movements in western Vir- 
ginia, was selected as commander of 
the United States forces, which soon 
came to be known as the Army of 
the Potomac. General McClellan 
had been educated at the United 
States Military Academy at West 
Point, and came to the command 
with a great popularity surrounding 
his name. He at once set himself 
to the difficult task of organizing a 
great army. 

561. Preparations. — The battle of 
Bull Run opened the eyes of the 
people both north and south. It 
became apparent to all that a great war was inevitable. No *' ninety 
days' campaign " would settle the contest. Each party immediately 
began preparations for the long and desperate struggle. The Union 
army rapidly increased until it numbered one hundred and fifty 
thousand men, and became the largest and finest army that had ever 
been raised in the United States. General McClellan, with energy 
and skill, undertook to drill and prepare it for active service. The 
Confederate armies in Virginia were also increased, and were set to 
work to fortify their capital, Richmond, against the advance of the 
Federal troops. 

562. The Battle of Ball's Bluff. — On the 2ist of October a force of 
about two thousand Union soldiers under General Stone was thrown 
across the Potomac at Ball's Bluff, not far from Leesburg. They 




General George B. McClellan. 

(From a negative in the possession of the U. S. 
Government.) 



l86r] THE WAR IN THE WEST. 295 

were quickly attacked by superior numbers of the Confederates 
under General Evans, and actually driven into the river. Many 
were drowned, more were shot, and scarcely any of their number 
reached the opposite bank. Colonel Baker, who was a United 
States senator from Oregon, was among the killed. 



CHAPTER LXXII. 

THE WAR IN THE WEST. 

563. Missouri. — During the first year of the war active operations 
in the West were chiefly confined to the State of Missouri. In the 
southern part of the State many citizens sided with the South ; but 
in the whole State a large majority were upon the Union side. 
Governor Jackson had strong sympathies with the Confederates, 
and a convention was called to consider the question of secession. 
The Convention refused to pass the ordinance, and the governor 
then determined to maintain a position of armed neutrality for the 
State. This was prevented by Captain Lyon, who was in command 
of the Union forces at St. Louis. He seized the United States 
arsenal, and put to rout the State militia. 

564. Battles. — Several engagements ensued with varying success. 
The Union force at Carthage was defeated in July by the Missouri 
troops under command of General Price and General McCulloch. 
In August the Southern army gained a victory at Wilson's Creek. 
In this battle General Lyon was killed. In September General 
Price captured Lexington, and took as prisoners a large number of 
Union soldiers. General Fremont (iy 528), now in command, 
drove Price southward as far as Springfield. General Hunter suc- 
ceeded Fremont, and the Union army fell back to St. Louis. 
Afterward General Halleck took command, and drove Price out 
of the State into Arkansas. In November General U. S. Grant 
(^ 656), after several successful engagements, made an attack upon 
a Confederate force, which had crossed over from Kentucky under 
command of General Pillow. This battle occurred at Belmont, and 
resulted favorably to the Confederates. 



296 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1861-1862 



565. Kentucky. — In Kentucky an attempt was made to hold the 
State in a position of armed neutrality;, but the effort failed, as it 
had in the case of Missouri. The large majority of the people in 
Kentucky were strongly Union in sentiment, and all efforts to ally 
this border State with the Southern cause failed. The Confederates 
now held a strong line of fortifications extending from the Cumber- 
land Gap to the Mississippi River. They had fortified Cumberland 
Gap, Bowling Green, and Columbus, making a line through the 
entire length of the State of Kentucky. They had also fortified 
Fort Henry on the Tennessee River, Fort Donelson on the Cum- 
berland, and Island No. 10 and Fort Pillow on the Mississippi, — 
all in Tennessee. 

566. A. S. Johnston. — The Confederate forces of the West were 
placed under the command of General Albert Sidney Johnston. 

His effort was to protect the Mem- 
phis and Charleston Railroad, which 
connected the country west of the 
Mississippi with the entire east-^na 
section of the Confederacy, and 
which enabled the Southern army 
to supply themselves with beef from 
Texas. By his fortifications on the 
Mississippi he intended to keep that 
river closed, so that the Union army 
could not penetrate the heart of the 
Confederacy with their gunboats. 

567. Forts Henry and Donelson. — • 
Early in 1862 General Grant, with 
a strong land force, assisted by 
Commodore Foote, with a fleet of 
gunboats, captured Fort Henry after 
an hour's fighting. The garrison, however, made their escape, and 
retreated to Fort Donelson. Grant, fiaving sent the gunboats up 
the Cumberland, marched his army across, and attacked this strong 
fortification. The battle lasted three days. Grant's attack was so 
vigorous that the garrison attempted to break through the lines 
and escape to Nashville. They were driven back within theii 
intrenchments. 




General A. S. Johnston. 



(From a photo>jraph taken at the age of 57, in the 
possession of liis son, Col. Preston Johnston.) 



i862] 



THE WAR IN THE WEST. 



297 



568. Surrender of Donelson. — Generals Floyd and Pillow, who were 
in command of the Confederate forces, consulting their own safety, 
made good their escape, leaving General Buckner in command. 
Early on the morning of February 16th, 1862, Buckner sent a flag of 
truce to Grant, asking what terms of capitulation he would accept. 
Without hesitation or a moment's delay. Grant replied laconically, 
" No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender. I pro- 
pose to move immediately upon your works." After this U. S. 
Grant was often interpreted *' Unconditional Surrender Grant." 




KENTUCKY 

AND 

TENNESSEE 

SCALE OF MILES. 



Buckner surrendered with fifteen thousand men, and the Confed- 
erate line of defence was thus broken. 

569. The Result. — Nashville was soon occupied by the Union 
forces. Columbus and Bowling Green were evacuated, and occu- 
pied by the Northern army. The Confederates now fell back to 
Corinth. This important place is just within the northern limits 
of Mississippi, and was an important railroad centre. Strong forces 
were soon collected at this place, under command of A. S. Johnston 
and Beauregard. The next move of the Union army was toward 
Corinth. 



298 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1862 



General Lew Wallace, who was 
at Crump's Landing with five thou- 
sand men, moved at the sound of 
firing toward his proper place. A 
courier announced the peril of the 
main army, and ordered him to Pitts- 
burg Landing, where he arrived at 
dusk, after a march of eighteen miles, 
through woods and swamp. At the 
time of Johnston's mortal wound and 
the temporary confusion before Bragg 
restored order, Wallace's fresh division 
seems to have had the destiny of the 
day, if not of the Confederate army, 
in its grasp. 




570. The Battle of Shiloh. — General Grant had been placed in 
command of a new military district called the Department of 

Western Tennessee. He pushed his 

army up the Tennessee River, and 
posted it near Pittsburg Landing, at 
Shiloh. Here he awaited the arrival 
of General Buell with reinforcements. 
The Confederate army under A. S. 
Johnston and Beauregard numbered 
about forty thousand men. These gen- 
erals determined to rout Grant's army 
before Buell could arrive. They at- 
tacked Grant early on Sunday morning, 
April 6th. The assault was sudden and 
unexpected, but the Union forces fought desperately. They were, 
however, compelled to fall back to the river, after a stubborn resist- 
ance during the entire day. Gen- 
eral A. S. Johnston, who was one of 
the ablest generals in the Southern 
army, was killed in this engagement. 
His death was a severe loss to the 
Confederacy. Buell's army arrived 
the following night. Early Monday 
morning the Union general ordered 
an advance, and attacked the Con- 
federates. Late in the day Beau- 
regard withdrew his army to the 
intrenchments at Corinth. 

571. The Results of the Battle. — 
The first day's fight clearly gave the 
victory to the Confederates. They 
captured many prisoners and large 
stores. The second day was favor- 
able to the Union forces, and the Confederates, though resisting 
obstinately, were driven from the field. This was the most impor- 
tant battle which had yet been fought west of Virginia. General 
Halleck now took command of the Union army, and pushed for- 
ward steadily against the Confederates. Beauregard retreated from 
Corinth, and Halleck took possession of that place on the 30th of 



Admiral David G. Farraguf. 

(From a negative in the possession of the 
U. S. Government.) 



1 862] 



THE WAR IN THE WEST. 



299 



David Glasgow Farragut, "the 
greatest naval commander the world 
has ever seen," was born in Tennessee, 
July 5th, 1801. His childhood was 
spent among the exciting scenes of 
frontier life, and before he reached the 
age of ten years he received a mid- 
shipman's commission in the United 
States navy. He had a varied expe- 
rience in the War of 1812, though he 
was not fourteen years old when the 
war ended. After this he continued in 
the navy for some time, and received a 
lieutenant's commission in 1825. 

When the Civil War broke out, 
Farragut found himself between two 
fires, — his love for the South and his 
love for his country. In April, 1861, 
he hastily left his home at Norfolk, 
Virginia, and in December received 
a commission to sail for New Orleans. 
His action in running the forts, and 
his success in capturing the city, stand 
unrivalled in the history of naval war- 
fare. December 23d, 1864, the grade 
of vice-admiral was created, and Far- 
ragut was at once appointed to tliis 
position. This rank he held until the 
grade of admiral was created, July 
25th, 1866. Admiral Farragut died in 
Portsmouth, New Hampshire, August 
14th, 1870. 



May. The Union army took up a position upon the Memphis and 
Charleston Railroad, thereby cutting off southern communication 
with Memphis, and securing control of an additional section of the 
Mississippi River. 

572. Island No. 10 and Fort Pillow. — The same day on which Grant 
defeated Beauregard at Shiloh, April 7th, General Pope, assisted 
by Commodore Foote, captured Island No. 10, taking more than 
five thousand prisoners. When Corinth had been evacuated by the 
Confederates, Fort Pillow was aban- 
doned, and the Union army now held 
the country from Memphis nearly to 
Chattanooga. Various other engage- 
ments took place during; the summer 
and fall, including those at Perryville, 
luka, Corinth, and Nashville. 

573. The Battle of Stone River. — Just 
at the close of the year two great armies 
met before Murfreesboro in Tennessee. 
For several days the carnage was fright- 
ful. The Union forces were commanded 
by General Rosecrans, and the Confed- 
erates by General Bragg. At first 
Bragg had the advantage, but Generals 
Thomas, Sheridan, and Hazen mani- 
fested great skill and firmness, and the 
day was saved for the Union cause. 
Bragg retreated, and the nation had 
gained another great victory. 

574. New Orleans. — -Early in 1862 
Commodore Farragut had been sent to 
Ship Island, near the mouth of the 
Mississippi River, with a strong force of soldiers and a complete 
naval outfit. The Confederates had fortified the lower Mississippi, 
and prepared many obstructions to its navigation. They had nu- 
merous forts, iron-clads, and fire-rafts, and had obstructed the 
channel with iron chains. At length Commodore Farragut deter- 
mined to sail past all these obstructions, and, selecting a dark 
night, he forced his way up the river. He boldly ran past their 



300 



DEVELOrMENT OF THE NATION, 



[1862 



forts, defeated and destroyed their fleet of rams, and approached 
New Orleans. The Confederates had abandoned the city. General 

Benjamin F. But- 
ler, in command 
of the land forces, 
took possession of 
the city on the 
28th of April. 

575. The Missis- 
sippi River. — The 
Confederates still 
held Vicksburg 
and Port Hudson, 
— two strongly 
fortified points. 
The Union forces, 
with their gun- 
boats, kept the 
river open above 
Vicksburg. This prevented easy communication between the Con- 
federates beyond the river and those on the eastern side. After the 
capture of New Orleans, Farragut, with his fleet, steamed up 
the river from New Orleans to Memphis, and returned, running 
the gauntlet of the Confederate batteries at Vicksburg and Port 
Hudson. 




CHAPTER LXXIII. 

THE WAR IN THE EAST. 

576. The "Trent" Affair. — Late in 1861 the Confederate govern- 
ment commissioned two former United States senators — Mr. Mason 
and Mr. Slidell — as commissioners to London and Paris. They suc- 
ceeded in sailing past the blockade, and reached Havana. At that 
port they embarked on an Fnglish mail steamer named the "Trent." 
Captain Charles Wilkes, commanding the United States steamship 
"San Jacinto," then at Havana, gave chase to the British steamer. 



1 862 J 



THE WAR IN IHE EAST. 



overhauled her, brought her to, went on board, and carried away the 
commissioners, November 8th, 1861. This act caused great excite- 
ment in England, and for a time there seemed to be serious danger of 
war between Great Britain and the United States. The American 
government had always strongly objected to the right which English 
war vessels had often claimed and exercised to search neutral vessels. 
It was not, therefore, inconsistent for the United States to disavow the 
act of Captain Wilkes, who had clearly gone beyond his authority; 
and our government, without censuring him, admitted that he had 
overstepped his powers, and gave up the commissioners to England. 

577. The Position of Great Britain and France. — Both England and 
France were at one time desirous of recognizing the independence 
of the Confederacy. They were, however, restrained from taking 
this step; but they both declared 
the Confederate States a^belligerent 
power, entitled to make war and 
have war vessels. This gave to the 
Confederate vessels the right to take 
refuge in foreign harbors, and soon 
English ship-builders and merchants 
began to build cruisers for parties in 
the interest of the Confederate gov- 
ernment. These vessels were often 
manned principally by British sail- 
ors, but they were commanded by 
Confederate officers. 

578. The "Merrimac." — Early in 
the war the Confederates had taken 
possession of the navy-yard at Nor- 
folk. At this navy-yard was a large United States frigate called 
the " Merrimac. " This vessel the Confederates had turned into a 
new style of craft called an iron-clad ram, which they re-named the 
•'Virginia." All that appeared above the water's edge was encased 
with heavy iron, so that all sorts of shot and shell would glance off 
and do her no harm. March 8th, 1862, this new iron-clad, being 
all ready, steamed out from Norfolk into Hampton Roads, where 
the United States had a fine fleet of war vessels lying at anchor. 
They opened fire upon this strange craft, but the shot bounded 




John Ericsson. 



302 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1862 



harmlessly from her iron roof. She attacked the " Cumberland " 
with terrific energy, and in a few moments so seriously injured 
her that she sank. Turning her attention to the "Congress," she 
disabled this frigate, when darkness put an end to the conflict, 
and she retired to Norfolk. Great consternation seized the whole 
North. At once it appeared as though nothing could stop the 
" Merrimxac " from sailing to the Northern cities, bombarding them 
and destroying their shipping, or from going south and breaking 
the blockade at all points. It was a day of fear and trembling. 




The "Monitor" and the " Merrimac" 

579. The "Monitor." — But relief was nearer at hand than any one 
knew. For some time past Captain John Ericsson, a native of 
Sweden, had been at work in New York, building an iron-clad on 
a new principle. He called it the " Monitor. " It was a small craft 
compared with the huge " Merrimac, " and carried but two guns, 
which were placed in a revolving turret. The deck of the vessel 
was flat, and scarcely appeared above the water's edge. The Con- 
federates called this singular craft "a Yankee cheese-box on a raft." 
Providentially it came about that this new sea monster arrived at 
Hampton Roads that very evening after the " Merrimac " had put 
into Norfolk. 



i862] 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. 



;o3 



580. The Battle between the Iron-Clads. — The next day, March 9th, 
1862, the " Merrimac " again sailed out to finish her work. As she 
appeared, the littleir'Monitor " placed herself between the wooden 
frigates and their huge enemy. The great giant and the little giant 
began firing at each other. The " Merrimac " ran, full speed, against 
the " Monitor," giving her a tremendous 
shock, but inflicting no serious dam- 
age. Five times the huge ram tried to 
sink the small iron-clad. The strange 
contest continued for four hours, and 
apparently neither vessel had injured 
the other. It had, however, become 
clear to the managers of the " Merri- 
mac " that they could do nothing with 
their new antagonist. She was shot 
proof, and shell proof, and bomb proof. 
She could not be sunk, and, being 
smaller, she could move much easier 
and quicker than the *' Merrimac." 
Consequently, the Confederate nonde- 
script steamed back again to Norfolk, 
from which place she never again 
sailed. Later she was destroyed by 
the Confederates themselves. This 
contest of a few hours changed all mod- 
ern methods of naval warfare. Here- 
after wooden vessels play no part in 
naval conflicts. 

581. The Virginia Campaigns. — During 
the second and third years of the war 
Virginia was the great battle-ground. 
Here was almost constant fighting, 
including several distinct campaigns. 
The first of these was McClellan's campaign on the peninsula. 

582. The Peninsular Campaign. — The Battle of Bull Run (^ 559) 
had ended the first attempt to march the Union armies overland 
from Washington toward Richmond. Its result was so disastrous 
that McClellan conceived an essentially different plan for his 



John Ericsson was brought up in 
Sweden, in the midst of mining and 
railroad machinery. When he was 
twenty-three years of age, in 1826, 
he went lo England to introduce a 
new engine which he had invented. 
He came to the United States in 18^9, 
and at once on his arrival in this 
country he furnished designs to the 
United States navy department for 
the warship " Princeton," the first 
vessel which had its propelling ma- 
chinery below the water line, out of 
the reach of hostile shot. This vessel 
was properly regarded as the pioneer 
of modern naval construction. He de- 
signed and built the " Monitor," in 
Greenpoint, New York, in 1861, for the 
United States government. She was 
built and launched, with steam ma- 
chinery complete, in one hundred days. 
It was this haste in her building which 
brought her to Hampton Roads in 
season to attack the " Merrimac." 
" But for the victory of the ' Moni- 
tor,' the result of the war might have 
been changed and European interfer- 
ence attempted." Soon after her con- 
test with the "Merrimac," a fleet of 
monitors was quickly built which 
defeated several iron-clad batteries. 
Many honors were bestowed on Erics- 
son for his inventions. He died in 
New York City, March 8th, 1889. In 
1867, a huge monument, quarried in 
one piece from the neighboring granite 
mines, was set up in front of his birth- 
place, bearing the inscription in the 
Swedish language, " John Erics.son 
was born here, 31st July, 1803." 



304 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1862 

great campaign. This was nothing less than moving his army by 
water to Fortress Monroe, and thence toward Richmond by the pe- 
ninsula which is formed by the James and tl^ieYork rivers. The 
advantages of this plan were obvious. The troops and supplies 
could be transported by water to within one-half the distance from 
Richmond that Washington is. Moreover, if McClellan could suc- 
ceed in opening the James River, then his water communication 
might carry him to some point in the immediate vicinity of the 
Confederate capital. It was necessary, however, that a part of his 
army, which he left under General McDowell, should remain in 
front of Washington, and another part, under General Banks, in the 
Shenandoah Valley, to prevent the Confederates from opening the 
way, by a sudden onset, to the national capital. 

583. Yorktown. ^ — By a rapid movement McClellan transferred 
his army to Fortress Monroe, and commenced his march up the 
peninsula. Meantime the Confederates had moved their force from 
Manassas Junction and fortified Yorktown (IT 362). McClellan laid 
siege to the town. General Magruder, with less than fifteen thou- 
sand men, held the town, and maintained a bold line, thirteen miles 
in length on McClcllan's front. McClellan ordered heavy. siege- 
guns from Washington, and threw up the most elaborate earthworks 
by parallel approaches. Here his whole army was delayed an entire 
month, and the Confederates withdrew (May 4th), just as he was 
about to open fire upon the town. 

584. Williamsburg. — General Magruder fell back ten miles 
westward to Williamsburg, where he had already built a strong 
fort called by his own name, and eight outlying redoubts. A 
severe battle took place here on the 5th of May, 1862. He was 
attacked by the division of General Hooker (''Fighting Joe," 
as he was called). Other troops soon arrived, and the contest was 
a severe one for nine hours. The Union loss was very large. 
Both sides claimed the victory. Magruder retreated during the 
night, and the pursuit was continued to a line seven miles from 
Richmond. 

585. The Panic at Richmond. — The Confederates evacuated Nor- 
folk, and destroyed the iron-clad ''Merrimac. " The James River 
was now open, and the ''Monitor, ' ' with other Union vessels, steamed 
up toward Richmond, and soon were but eight miles from the 



i862] 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. 



305 



capital. The Union army was also within seven miles of the city. 
Richmond was now seriously threatened. The Confederate Congress 
had already adjourned. A report gained ground that the city was 
to be abandoned. McClellan should have continued his advance, 
and attacked the Confederates at once; but he discovered that 
a Confederate force at Hanover Court House threatened his railroad 
communications with White House Landing, near the head of York 
River. General Fitz-John Porter, by a quick movement, captured 
Hanover Court House. McClellan expected that General McDowell, 
who was at Fredericksburg with thirty thousand men, would, as soon 
as possible, join 
him. He therefore 
delayed the attack 
until McDowell 
might arrive. But 
his plans were in- 
terfered with by the 
counter plans of the 
enemy. General 
J. E. Johnston, who 
was in command of 
the Confederate 
army, ordered 
Stonewall Jackson 
(IT 594) to make a 
rapid movement 

down the Shenandoah Valley and threaten Washington, 
relieved Richmond, which soon recovered from the panic. 

586. The Panic at Washington. — ■ Jackson, having been reinforced 
by Ewell's division, had under his command fifteen thousand men. 
With this force he chased Banks down the valley in June, but the 
Union troops succeeded in escaping across the Potomac. The Union 
capital was now in a panic. Washington was threatened. It was 
not known how large a force Jackson had. The President at once 
ordered McDowell, at Fredericksburg, and Banks, at Harper's 
Ferry, to unite against this attacking force, and, at all hazards, 
capture Jackson and his army. The race began. It was now 
Jackson's turn to be alarmed, and to retreat with speed. He burned 

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3o6 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1862 



the bridges behind him, and at length made good his escape from 
the Shenandoah Valley; but he had accomplished the design which 
General Johnston intended. He had threatened Washington, held at 
bay three major-generals with a combined army of four times his 

own, prevented McDowell from joining 
McClellan, and by these sagacious and 
rapid movements had saved Richmond. 

587. Battle of Fair Oaks and Seven 
Pines. — McClellan 's army was now 
divided by the Chickahominy. He had 
spread out his right flank with the hope 
of being joined by McDowell. Heavy 
rains ensued. The Chickahominy, 
which is a small stream running past 
the north side of Richmond and into 
the James River, rose rapidly and its 
bridges were carried away. The coun- 
try on both sides of the river was in 
reality a great swamp, and the two 
parts of McClellan' s army, being thus 
separated by the swollen river, could 
not help each other. Johnston at once. 
May 31st, attacked that part of the 
Union forces which was on the Rich- 
mond side of the river. The attack 
was impetuous, and made with tremen- 
dous force. Only McClellan' s left wing could be utilized in repel- 
ling it. At first the Confederates appeared to be successful; but 
their advancing column was checked by General Sumner, and 
Johnston himself was severely wounded. Darkness coming on 
caused a cessation of the conflict. The next morning the Confed- 
erates renewed the assault ; but the loss of their general seemed to 
dispirit the army, and they were repulsed with great loss. General 
Robert E. Lee now took command of the Confederates. Jackson 
hurried southward after his raid against Washington, and joined 
Lee. His infantry had marched more than four hundred miles, 
and had achieved astonishing results ; from this time Jackson was 
considered one of the ablest Confederate generals, and his soldiers. 



Joseph Eggleston Johnston, the 
second general of the Confederate 
army, was born in Virginia, in 1807. 
He was graduated from the West 
Point Academy in 1829, and served as 
lieutenant in the Seminole War. He 
won for himself great credit by his 
bravery, as lieutenant-colonel, in the 
Mexican War, in which he was twice 
severely wounded. He remained in 
the army until 1861, when his native 
State passed the Ordinance of Seces- 
sion. He immediately entered the 
Confederate service as brigadier-gen- 
eral, and won the battle of Bull Run by 
means of his re-enforcements. In Au- 
gust, i86i,he was made general, and in 
1863 he was assigned to the command of 
the Army of the Tennessee. He made 
vigorous efforts to save Vicksburg, but 
was unsuccessful. He was given com- 
mand of the army opposite General 
Sherman in 1864, but was soon super- 
seded by General Hood. Restored to 
command the next January, he was 
unable to check General Sherman, and 
surrendered his army to him, Ajiril 26th, 
1865. After the war he held several 
offices in state and nation, and died in 
Washington in 1891. 



i862] 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. 



307 



sometimes called "Jackson's foot cavalry," were the pride of the 
Confederate army of Virginia. 

588. The Seven Days' Battle.— Lee and Jackson now attacked 
McClellan's right wing, — first at Mechanicsville, where they 
were repulsed, the next day at Gaines' Mills, where they suc- 
ceeded in cutting off 
McClellan's supplies 
from the York River. 
McClellan now deter- 
mined to swing his army 
over from the York to 
the James River. By 
this means he hoped to 
open up a new base of 
supplies on the James, 
and to unite the two 
wings of his army for a 
successful assault upon 
Richmond. Lee and 
Jackson followed, and for 
an entire week there was 
desperate fighting every 
day. The most impor- 
tant engagements were 
those of Savage's Sta- 
tion, Frazer's Farm, 
White Oak Swamp, and 
Malvern Hill. At the 
battle of Malvern Hill, 
July 1st, 1862, Lee was repulsed, and McClellan succeeded in 
reaching the James River in safety. 

589. Failure of the Peninsular Campaign. — The battle of Malvern 
Hill told so heavily upon Lee's forces that he was in no condition 
to renew the attack. The Union troops retired without opposition 
to Harrison's Landing, where they were protected by the gunboats 
on the James. The loss in these battles was very heavy on both 
sides, but the great advantage was with the Confederates. Rich- 
mond had been saved, and the Union army was hemmed in near the 




General Robert E. Lee. 



3o8 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1862 



James River under the protection of the gunboats. The North had 
certainly hoped that at this time Richmond would be captured. 

The disappointment was severe. Presi 
dent Lincoln immediately issued a call 
for three hundred thousand more troops. 
The two months which followed were 
sad days for the North. Recruiting 
was very slow. The people were dis- 
heartened. Their disappointment at 
McClellan's failure to capture the Con- 
federate capital was akin to the public 
feeling after Bull Run (H 559).- In 
September and October following, re- 
cruiting throughout the North was very 
brisk, and the number entering the ser- 
vice was largely increased by bounties 
which were now offered by the several 
States. Many regiments of troops were 
enlisted for a period of nine months' 
service, and others for three years or 
the war. 

590. Pope's Campaign. — General Pope 
was in command of the defences of 
Washington, and at this time was sta- 
tioned at the Rapidan. McClellan 
received orders from Washington to 
transfer his army from the James River 
to Acquia Creek, but he was very 
slow in obeying the command. It was 
expected that Pope would begin a new advance upon Richmond 
from the North. As fast as McClellan's forces were. withdrawn 
from the vicinity of Richmond, Lee started his troops on a march 
northward again to menace Washington. Pope met the Confeder- 
ates on the old field of Bull Run. The Union force was defeated, 
and the second time the army fell back to the fortifications be- 
fore Washington. Lee himself now moved northward with such 
celerity that McClellan had hardly reached Washington when Lee 
crossed the upper Potomac, apparently intending to push on and 



Robert Edward Lee, General of 
the Confederate army, was born in Vir- 
ginia, January 19th, 1S07. He was a 
son of General Henry Lee, or " Light- 
Horse Harry," and was also a relative 
of Richard Henry Lee, of the Con- 
tinental Congress. Graduated from 
West Point in 1829, Captain Lee 
served in the Mexican War, was 
wounded at Chapultepec, and was 
made colonel for his bravery. He 
went with his State when it passed 
the Ordinance of Secession, and was 
at once appointed third in rank among 
the Confederate officers. General Lee 
was placed in command of the army of 
Northern Virginia in June, 1862, which 
position he held throughout the rest 
of the war. 

General Lee was " one of the great- 
est of the modern commanders." He 
would have been a remarkable general 
under any conditions, but his pre-emi- 
nent rank was more marked, owing to 
the great obstacles which he had to 
overcome. He was hindered in all his 
movements by political and financial 
difficulties, but was able to hold his 
position, even against the boundless 
power of the Union, for nearly three 
years. General Lee is worthy of the 
great love which he has always received 
from the Southern people, and of the 
high esteem which has been accorded 
him by his enemies. His later life 
was spent as President of the Wash- 
ington and Lee University, and his 
death occurred in the midst of his 
work, October 12th, 1870. 



1862] 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. 



309 



attack Baltimore or Philadelphia. Pojoe's shattered army was now 
united with McClellan's command, and the whole force was quickly 
put in motion to intercept Lee. 

591. South Mountain and Antietam. — McClellan first encountered 
the Confederates at the passage of the South Mountain, where the 
Union forces won an easy victory. McClellan's whole army now 
pushed forward, and Lee, being reinforced by Jackson, who had 
captured Harper's Ferry, turned upon McClellan, and on the 17th 
of September, 1862, fought the great battle of Antietam. This was a 
severe conflict. The loss on either side was about thirteen thou- 
sand. Practically, it was a drawn battle; but the two armies were 
on northern soil, where McClellan was constantly being reinforced, 
and Lee found it difficult to obtain supplies for his army. This 
battle, therefore, successfully stopped Lee's advance into the North, 
and he withdrew his entire force across the Potomac into Virginia. 
Lee's first invasion of the North thus proved a quick failure, and 
the Confederates retired to their old position near Fredericksburg. 
McClellan was severely criticised 

for not at once pursuing Lee and 
cutting off his army. 

592. General Burnside. — The tide 
of public sentiment had turned 
against McClellan. He was in many 
respects an efficient officer, thorough 
in his organization of an army, and 
a splendid engineer, but the people 
considered him too slow in his move- 
ments against the enemy. General 
Ambrose E. Burnside was a West 
Pointer, had acquired celebrity by 
his invention of the Burnside rifle 
had proved himself, first at Bull 
Run, afterward in his expedition to 
North Carolina, and then in command of the ninth army corps, a 
brave and efficient general. While the Union army was on the 
march, following Lee from Harper's Ferry to Fredericksburg, the 
President relieved McClellan and placed General Burnside in com- 
mand of the entire Army of the Potomac. Burnside took command 




General Ambrose E. Burnside. 



3IO 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1862-1863 



of the army on the 9th of November, 1862, at Warrenton, Virginia. 
He pushed forward from Warrenton to Falmouth. Here he was 
delayed in moving his army across the Rappahannock, because the 
pontoon bridges which he had ordered had not arrived. He had 
hoped also to reach there in advance of Lee ; but before he could 
move his troops across the river, a Confederate force was posted 
upon the heights opposite ready to oppose his crossing. It was 
now December, and heavy rains had made the river impassable with- 
out pontoons, and had put the soil in such condition as to make long 
marches impossible. Prudence might dictate winter-quarters for 
the army, but, remembering the criticisms against McClellan's inac- 
tivity, Burnside determined to hazard a battle. 

593. Fredericksburg. — On the 13th of December was fought the 
important battle of Fredericksburg. Burnside was.obliged to send 
his troops across the river under a heavy fire to Btorm the heights. 
The slaughter was frightful, and the Union forces must now recross 
the river. It was one of the worst defeats that the Union army had 
thus far suffered. Had the pontoon bridges arrived in season, so 
that Burnside could have crossed the river immediately upon his 
. . . ^ arrival, and occupied the heights of 

l^>edericksburg, the result would 
doubtless have been very differ- 
ent. Burnside was a brave soldier, 
patriotic, generous, and magnani- 
mous. A change of commanders 
was, however, necessary. The Pres- 
ident refused to accept Burnside's 
resignation, but on the 26th of 
January, 1863, by order of the 
President, the command of the army 
was transferred to General Hooker. 
594. Chancellorsville. — After tak- 
ing command. General Hooker re- 
organized and unified the army, and 
having crossed the Rappahannock 
with the main body of his forces 
some miles above Fredericksburg, he took a position in the wilder- 
ness near the little village of Chancellorsville. Here, on the 2d 




Stonewall " Jackson. 



1863] 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. 



311 



and 3d of May, 1863, he fought a severe battle with the Confederates 
under Lee and Jackson. The result of this engagement was favor- 
able to the Confederates, inasmuch as Hooker was obliged to retreat 
across the Rappahannock. The loss was fearful on both sides. The 
battle proved a great disaster to the Confederates, however, from 
the death of Stonewall Jackson. When 
Lee heard of Jackson's death he ex- 
claimed that he "had lost his right 
arm. " 

595. Longstreet and Suffolk. — Norfolk 
was held by the Federal forces. Twenty- 
five miles from Norfolk, at the head of 
the Nansemond River, was the large 
village of Suffolk, connected with Nor- 
folk by two railroads, —the Norfolk 
and Petersburg, and the Weldon Rail- 
road. Suffolk was the key to Norfolk, 
and virtually commanded that portion 
of North Carolina which lies east of 
the Chowan. Suffolk was thoroughly 
fortified, and was held by a few 
thousand troops under command of 
General Peck. In the early spring of 
1863 Lee detached Longstreet from his 
army, and sent him with forty thousand 
men to capture Suffolk. Several en- 
gagements took place with sharp fight- 
ing on both sides, but the advantages 
of shelter, and the co-operation of the 
gunboats upon the river, overbalanced the superior numbers of the 
Confederates, and all attempts to break through the Union lines 
were decidedly repulsed. Peck was soon reinforced by troops from 
the defences of Washington, until his army numbered twenty- 
five thousand. Longstreet 's siege of Suffolk lasted twenty-three 
days, until the 3d of May, when he was called off by orders 
from Lee to join him as speedily as possible. Suffolk therefore 
remained in the hands of the Union forces. Longstreet imme- 
diately joined Lee, who was expecting a second attack from 



Thomas Jonathan Jackson, or 

" Stonewall " Jackson, as he was pop- 
ularly called, was born in Virginia, 
January 21st, 1824. Like the other 
great generals of the Confederate army, 
young Jackson entered West Point, 
from which academy he was graduated 
in 1S46. Here he showed marked abil- 
ity as a soldier, and was appointed 
lieutenant in the artillery on his gradu- 
ation. After the Mexican War he re- 
signed from the army, and became 
Professor of Natural Philosophy at 
Lexington, Virginia. At the beginning 
of the Civil War, Major Jackson was 
given command of a regiment of infan- 
try, and as colonel captured the Fed- 
eral Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, in 
May, 1861. It was his brigade which 
stood "like a stone wall " in the bat- 
tle of Bull Run, thereby winning great 
admiration. General Jackson was con- 
spicuous in each of the great battles in 
Virginia for the next two years, and 
proved himself to be General Lee's 
most valuable subordinate. He was 
fired upon, under a mistake, by men of 
his own command, in the battle of 
Chancellorsville, and died from tlie 
wound eight days later. May loth, 
1863. By this deatli the Confederate 
cause lost one of its most eminent gen- 
erals, and one who was greatly beloved 
by every man in his corps. 



312 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1861-1862 

Hooker. Hooker's losses were such, however, that he did not 
venture another contest. 

596. Along the Sea-coast. — Several expeditions during the first 
year of the war had been sent by sea down the coast to capture and 
hold various points. In August, 1861, a fleet under command of 
Commodore Stringham, with land forces under General Butler, cap- 
tured the forts on Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina. Later in the 
same year Commodore Dupont and General T. W. Sherman cap- 
tured Port Royal, South Carolina. Hilton Head was occupied per- 
manently by Federal forces, and from this place naval expeditions 
were put in operation against various Southern ports. During the 
winter of 1 861-1862, an expedition of considerable magnitude was 
despatched with land and naval forces under General Burnside and 
Commodore Goldsboro against North Carolina. In February, 1862, 
they captured Roanoake Island with its garrison. A month later 
General Burnside fought the battle of Newbern, and took possession 
of that place. Soon after the Union forces captured St. Augustine, 
Fernandina, and other places in Florida. In April General Gil- 
more captured Fort Pulaski in Georgia, and Commodore Goldsboro 
took Fort Macon in North Carolina. 

Thus the Federal forces occupied various points along the Atlantic 
coast, which gave them great advantage, and which diminished the 
necessary blockade squadron. 

597. General Summary. — We have now considered the first half of 
the war as regards the time it occupied. During the first year the 
Union forces had experienced the great defeat at Bull Run (IF 559), 
and the Confederates had been successful in several smaller engage- 
ments, but practically they had gained nothing from these suc- 
cesses. The Union had saved the States of Maryland, Kentucky 
(IT 565), and Missouri (H 563), and had held western Virginia (IF 560) 
and the national capital, Washington (IF 586). They had organized 
a great army and an efficient navy, and actually laid siege to the 
whole Confederacy (IF 596). They had secured along the coast 
various harbors for their blockading fleets, and to serve as points 
from which to make attacks upon neighboring territory. During 
the second year of the war the battle of Shiloh (IF 570), the capture 
of Forts Henry (IF 567) and Donelson (IF 568), New Orleans (IF 574), 
Roanoke Island (IF 596), and the contest in Hampton Roads between 



I86I-I862] 



THE WAR IN THE EAST. 



313 



the "Monitor" and the " Merrimac " (IT 580) had all proved substan- 
tial Union victories. Neither the Union nor the Confederacy had 
made gains in Virginia. The North had been saved from invasion 
at Antietam (1[ 591), while the South had driven the invading forces 
from the Peninsula (IT 589), and had defeated the Union army at 
FVedericksburg (T 593) and at Chancellorsville (IF $94). The Union 
lines had advanced across the State of Tennessee, the Mississippi 
River had been almost completely oj^ened (IT 575), and the blockade 
was growing more strict. The entire North was busy with its manu- 
facturing and agricultural operations. The Confederacy had no 
commerce, and but few manufactories. Moreover, it was blockaded, 
and thus importations prevented. 

598. Foreign Affairs. — No foreign government had been brought 
to recognize the Confederate States as an independent nation, as it 
had been generally understood that such recognition would at once 
necessitate a declaration of war on the 
part of the United States against such 
government. Foreign governments 
had, however, declared the Confeder- 
ate States a belligerent power, which 
gave them many advantages. 

599. Paper Money. — The ex- 
penses of the war were so enormous 
on the part of the government that 
the necessity soon existed for the use 
of paper money (H 631). Early in 
1862 Congress authorized the issuing 
of government notes, which were 
made legal tender in payment of 
debts. These notes were issued by 
the government in various denomina- 
tions, promising to pay to the bearer on demand the sums which 
the face of the note indicated. At one time they amounted to 
about four hundred and fifty million dollars. These were called 
"Greenbacks," from the color of the ink used in printing the 
back of the note. The principal reliance of the government, 
however, for its funds, was placed on government bonds or prom- 
ises to pay at some future date with interest. The bill authorizing 




Henry Ward Beecher. 

(After an etchinjj by Rajon, Paris.) 



314 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1863 



Henry Ward Beecher. — The 

English people were greatly interested 
in the American war. In many respects 
the sympathy seemed to be with the 
Southern Confederacy. Not until after 
the Emancipation Proclamations of 
President Lincoln had shown that the 
war had become a contest for and 
against slavery was the English na- 
tion ready to be cordial to the Union. 
Rev. Henry Ward Beecher greatly 
advanced the interests of the United 
States by his eloquent speeches before 
British audiences during the summer of 
1863. Mr. Beecher was pastor of one 
of the largest churches in Brooklyn, and 
eminent, not only as a preacher, but also 
as a political and popular lecturer. 



the National Bank currency did not pass Congress until early in 
5S63 (H 634). 

600. Emancipation. — President Lincoln, from the first, had in- 
iiisted that the war was only to preserve the Union. It was not in 

the interest of one section over another. 
Disputing the right of secession, the 
government claimed the right of self- 
preservation. The Union was to be 
maintained at all hazards. As the war 
progressed, however, a strong feeling 
prevailed in the North that, as slavery 
was the real, principal cause of the 
war, the President should attack slav- 
ery as a war measure. After the battle 
of Antietam, President Lincoln issued 
his first Emancipation Proclamation. 
This proclamation was only a warning. 
In itself it did nothing. It merely 
gave notice to the seceded States that unless they returned to the 
Union before the close of the year he would declare their slaves 
free. As no State did return, he issued, on January 1st, 1863, his 
real Emancipation Proclamation. This was put forth as a war 
measure, and it declared that all slaves should hereafter be free in 
the States then in rebellion. 

601. The End of Slavery. — This proclamation did not abolish 
slavery in the United States. It had no application in the border 
States-, as they were called, which had not seceded. Slavery there- 
fore existed legally, as heretofore, in Delaware, Maryland, West 
Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri. The immediate effect of the 
proclamation was that the army and navy thereafter considered all 
negroes as free men, and refused to allow their former masters to 
treat them as slaves. Soon after, colored men were enlisted as 
soldiers and sailors in the army and navy. It should be distinctly 
borne in mind that slavery was not finally abolished in this country 
until the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution was ratified in 
1865 (IF 644). 



i863l 



THE DARKEST HOUR AND THE DAWN, 



15 



CHAPTER LXXIV. 

THE DARKEST HOUR AND THE DAWN. 



602. Lee's Second Invasion. — For two years the war for the Union 
had been bravely fought, but not with great success. The Con- 
federates had fought with equal bravery, and, although generally 
with less numbers, they had prevented any marked gain by the i 
Union forces. The spring campaign of 1863 in the East had proved 
disastrous to the Union cause, especially in Hooker's failure at 
Chancellorsville. Lee, emboldened by his success in this engage- 
ment, determined once more to cross 

the Potomac, and carry the war into 
Union territory. The Confederate 
army by rapid marches pushed across 
northern Virginia, crossed Mary- 
land, and marched into Pennsylvania. 
Hooker, by orders from the Presi- 
dent, turned over the command of 
the army to General Meade. Meade 
at once hurried forward the Army 
of the Potomac to prevent Lee fn m 
attacking Washington or Baltimore. 
Lee apparently was aiming directly 
at Harrisburg, the capital of the 
State. 

603. Gettysburg^. — Gettysburg was 
a beautiful town of three thousand 
inhabitants, pleasantly situated in 
hills, slopes, and elevated pl-ateaus. 
cultivated and fertile region. On the first day of July, 1863, the 
Confederate advance, under Hill and Ewell, met the advance corps 
of the Union army, under Reynolds and Howard. After a spirited 
engagement the Confederates drove them southward through the town 
to an elevated line along Gulp's Hill and Cemetery Ridge, overlook- 
ing the town. This day's fight was a brilliant success on the part 




General George G. Meade. 

(From a negative in the possession of the U. S. 
Government.) 

little valley surrounded by 
It is the centre of a well- 



3i6 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1863 



of the Southern army. The Federals sustained a great loss in the 
death of General Reynolds. 

604. The Second Day. — During the night following, the larger 
part of the Federal army came up and formed their line along a 
series of ridges extending from Gulp's Hill on the right to Round 
Top on the left. The Gonfederates took position on the opposite 
side of the town, and extended themselves for twelve miles or more, 

their extreme right being 



GETTYSBURG 




opposite Round Top, and 
their left opposite Gulp's 
Hill. The situation was 
favorable to the Federals. 
On July 2d and 3d was 
fought the most important 
battle of the war. Here 
occurred the most fearful 
charges, advances, and re- 
treats, and the most terrific 
artillery fire. 

605. The Third Day. — 
The centre of the Union 
forces was about Gemetery 
Ridge; and on the after- 
noon of the third day Lee 
suddenly opened an artil- 
lery fire, which was con 
centrated upon Gemetery 
Ridge from one hundred 
and fifty pieces of artillery. 
For two hours the air was alive with shot and shell. In all the 
annals of war perhaps no instance can be found of a braver assault, 
a more persistent attack, or a more heroic repulse than in Pickett's 
charge, which occurred also on the third day of the battle. The 
steadiness of the Union troops in resisting this charge and obliging 
the Gonfederates to retreat was an illustration of the bravest heroism 
and the most devoted patriotism to be found in history. 

606. The Result. — The battle was over. The Federal army had 
won. A successful invasion of the North became impossible. 



1863] 



THE DARKEST HOUR AND THE DAWN. 



17 



Gettysburg had put an end to that idea. But the South could 
never replace the thousands of Lee's veterans who went down in 
the terrible conflict. The losses on both sides were terrific. In 
the three days' contest the Union army lost more than twenty-three 
thousand men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and the Confed- 
erate loss was equally large. Nothing remained for Lee but to re- 
cross the Potomac, 
which he did, 
slowly followed by 
Meade and the 
Army of the Po- 
tomac. Gettys- 
burg was really the 
dawn of the new 
day (Appendix F). 
607. Events in 
the West. — The 
4th of July, 1863, 
was a marked day 
for the people of 
the North. Not 




'on Gibson 


""^urtonton 


VICKSBURG 

i AND 

VICINITY 

SCALE Of WILIS 



only had the battle of Gettysburg been won, but military events 
in the West were greatly in favor of the Union cause. 

608. Vicksburg and Port Hudson. — In order to gain complete 
control of the Mississippi (H 575), thereby preventing the Confed- 
erate army from obtaining supplies from the country beyond the 
river, it was necessary that the Union forces should capture Vicks- 
burg and Port Hudson. General Banks pushed up the river and 
attacked Port Hudson. General Grant moved down the river and 
attacked Vicksburg. For two months he endeavored to cut a canal 
across a short bend in the river so as to turn the course of the 
river away from Vicksburg. Finally he moved his army still 
farther south, crossed the river, moved northeast, and attacked 
the stronghold from the eastern side. The Confederate army of 
the West was under the command of General Joseph E. Johns- 
ton, a most skilful general. General Pembcrton was in com- 
mand at Vicksburg. Grant separated Johnston's army from that 
under Pemberton ; then, attacking Johnston, he drove him eastward 



3i8 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1863 



CHATTANOOGA 

vicimiY, 

SCALE OF MILES V 




beyond Jackson. Returning, he hemmed in Pemberton's forces at 
Vicksburg, and laid siege to the town. Thus he threatened 
Johnston in the rear, and attacked Pemberton in the front. The 
siege was managed with both strategy and skill. Only one event 
could result. Pemberton's army was starved out. After a siege 
of six weeks Pemberton surrendered with his entire force. The 
surrender took place on the Fourth of July, 1863, the day fol^ 

•lowing the close 
of the battle at 
Gettysburg. Port 
Hudson surren- 
dered on the 9th 
of July. 

609. Chicka- 
mauga. — While 
Grant was laying 
siege to Vicks- 
burg, Rosecrans, 
who occupied 
M urf reesboro, 
moved south, and 
obliged the Con- 
federates to evac- 
uate Chattanooga 
and retire still 
further south, where they took up a position upon the Chickamauga. 
Here, on the 19th and 20th of September, was fought a severe 
battle, which resulted in Rosecrans' defeat. His army retreated to 
Chattanooga, but the retreat was covered by a part of his command, 
under General Thomas, who held his ground obstinately and thereby 
prevented more serious disasters. General Bragg, with the South- 
ern army, followed and hemmed in the Union forces at Chattanooga, 
cutting off their supplies. 

610. Missionary Ridge. — Grant, who had been made famous by 
the capture of Vicksburg, was now placed in command of the 
western armies. He hastened to Chattanooga, and found Bragg' s 
army posted along Missionary Ridge. The Confederates were so 
strongly fortified as apparently to defy attack. Grant ordered an 



i863] 



THE DARKEST HOUR AND THE DAWN. 



319 




attack along Bragg's line upon Missionary Ridge. The Ridge was 
so steep that the Confederate artillery could not be sufficiently 
depressed to reach the storming 
party as they ascended the heights. 
Bragg's entire line was therefore 
captured by a sudden assault. 

611. Lookout Mountain. — Lookout 
Mountain also witnessed a unique 
battle. A portion of Bragg's troops 
were stationed upon a plateau high 
upon the mountain, where some- 
times the clouds settled down around 
the mountain below. Here occurred 
what is sometimes called " The Bat- 
tle above the Clouds." It was, 
however, an insignificant affair, but 
entirely successful to the Union 
side. Grant had been reinforced by 
two corps from the Army of the 
Potomac, under Hooker, and Sherman had hastened up by forced 
marches from luka, two hundred miles away. In November, also, 
Thomas captured Orchard Knob. Bragg's army was routed, and 
the Union forces were left in possession of Chattanooga. These 
successes were brilliant, and added new laureis to the already great 
popularity of General Grant. 

612. Burnside at Knoxville. — Longstreet, with a considerable 
force, had shut up Burnside at Knoxville. After the Confederates 
had retreated from the vicinity of Chattanooga, Grant sent Sherman 
(IT 626) to the assistance of Burnside (IF 592) at Knoxville. On 
the 30th of November Longstreet made an assault, but was repulsed 
with heavy loss, and, hearing of Sherman's approach, he abandoned 
the siege and retired toward Virginia. The fall campaign in the 
West was now practically ended. Eastern Tennessee was in the 
hands of the Union forces, and the gate was open through which 
Sherman was subsequently to pass on his march through the heart 
of the Confederacy. 



General George H. Thomas. 

(From a negative in the possession of the U. S. 
Government.) 



320 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



ri864 



CHAPTER LXXV. 



GRANT AND LEE. — SHERMAN AND JOHNSTON 



613. The Position of the Armies. — During the last year of the war 
the Union forces were principally massed in two great armies under 
Grant (IF 656) and Sherman (H 626). The Confederate forces were 
also massed in two great armies under Lee (^f 589) and Johnston 

(IF 586). Lee was in Vir- 
ginia with Grant threat- 
ening him. Johnston 
was at Dalton, in west- 
ern Georgia, in a moun- 
tainous country, where 
it would be difficult to 
drive him back into the 
lc\el region to the east- 
\\ u"d. Grant now re- 
LLived the rank 'f 
1 isutenant-General, and 
\\ IS placed in command 
of all the armies. Grant 
and Sherman agreed on 
a plan of campaign which 
they felt assured would 
prove successful in the 
capture of all the Con- 
federate armies and the 
overthrow of the Con- 
federacy. They deter- 
mined that the movement 
of the two armies should 
begin at the same time, 
and that each should keep his opponent so thoroughly occupied 
that the two divisions of the Confederate army could not help each 
other. 




General U. S. Grant. 

(After a photograph taken at the time of the siege of Vicksburg.) 



1864] GRANT AND LEE. 



321 



614. The Wilderness. — Grant started for Richmond from the 
Raj^pahannock, through the country known as the Wilderness. The 
struggle began almost immediately, and for several weeks the fight 
ing was intense, and the slaughter the most frightful of the whole 
war. The obstacles threatening Grant's success were extreme. A 
veteran army was before him. He was in the enemy's country, 
which itself was indeed a wilderness; and whatever movement he 
undertook he was sure to find a formidable opposing force in front 
of him. Here he showed his skill and strategy, especially by the 
simple device of "flank movements." Instead of a bull-dog attack 
in front, whenever he found his opponent in position, he simply 
marched his army past the enemy's flank, and forced him to retreat 
to a new position. In this way, with fearful slaughter, day by day, 
he pushed forward until his army had reached the Chickahominy, 
and Lee, with almost his entire force, was within the defences of 
Richmond. Grant lost nearly thirty thousand men, and Lee about 
eight thousand. 

615. The Defences Impregnable. — Grant was sagacious enough soon 
to discover that the defences upon the north side of Richmond were 
impregnable. At one time he assaulted the entire Confederate line 
at once, but was repulsed with heavy loss. He therefore deter- 
mined to move his army to the other side of the James River and 
attack Richmond from the south. In doing this, it became necessary 
to follow almost the exact line over which McClellan had passed 
two years before in his seven days' fight. Having passed the river. 
Grant next attacked Petersburg. 

616. The Petersburg Campaign. — The Confederate fortifications 
were so formidable that they could not be taken by assault. Grant 
therefore laid siege to Petersburg. Meantime he determined to 
push around still further to the westward, and, if possible, thus 
extend his left flank so as to be able finally to cut off the railroads 
which brought supplies for Lee's army. These movements obliged 
the Confederates to be constantly alert, continually to face Grant 
with new fortifications, and Lee was thereby prevented from send- 
ing any reinforcements to Johnston. 

617. Sheridan and Winchester. — Grant had retained with his army 
his best cavalry-general, — the intrepid Phil Sheridan. Sheridan's 
cavalry was sent by Grant into the Shenandoah Valley, where 



322 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1864 






General Early with twenty thousand men was making a raid with 
the intent to threaten Washington. " The movement out of Balti- 
more, by General Lew Wallace, to attack a force far superior to his 
own, on the Monocacy River, so delayed the enemy," according to 
General Grant's statement, "as to enable him to get troops from 

City Point, Virginia, in time to save 
the city " of Washington. Sheridan 

was placed in command of all the 

[wKK- "■ r iM T ' T^ III ^^oops in that region. He defeated 

Early at Winchester and Fisher's 

I'l' ' 'HtP""^'^"^' '^^ * ffl ^^^^' ^^^^^ which Early retreated 

rapidly up the Shenandoah Valley. 
Being reinforced, he returned and 
surprised the Union army at Cedar 
Creek. Sheridan being absent, his 
forces yielded and began a rapid 
retreat in great confusion. At 
Winchester, twenty miles away, he 
k ^V^HH09HH ^^^^^ ^^^ cannonading, returned 

^ ^f^^^^H^^ffl upon a rapid gallop, and arrived 

General Philip H. Sheridan. • j. ^ <.u •!.• i a. a 

^ just at the critical moment. As 

he rushed along the road upon his fiery horse foaming with per- 
spiration, he shouted, ''Turn, boys, turn; we are going back." His 
presence was so magnetic that the men who had already retreated 
followed him into the fight, and secured a victory. "Sheridan's 
Ride" has been immortalized in a stirring poem by T. Buchanan 
Read. 

618. Sherman and Atlanta. — Leaving Grant daily pushing his 
siege at Petersburg, let us see what Sherman is doing further south. 
Sherman's army consisted of perhaps one hundred thousand men. 
His first movement was against his antagonist at Dalton in Georgia. 
He had to pass through a mountainous country, largely wooded, for 
a hundred miles, where he found the Confederates posted in a series 
of well-fortified positions, some of them almost impregnable. He 
continued his skirmishing, both armies being led by consummate 
strategists. Sherman's general plan was to drive Johnston into one 
of his strongholds, and then flank him and push forward. His force 
was superior to the Confederates, and he subsisted largely upon the 




1864] 



SHERMAN AND JOHNSTON. 



32. 



country through which he was passing. Bloody battles were fought 
at Dalton, Resaca, Dallas, Lost Mountain, and Kenesaw Mountain. 
It was nearing the middle of July, 1864, when Sherman presented 
himself before the city of Atlanta, within whose intrenchments 
Johnston had then retired. 

619. The Capture of Atlanta. — Although Johnston had handled 
his army with consummate skill, yet, as he was inevitably every- 
where unsuccessful, Davis displaced 
him and put General Hood in com- 
mand. As Johnston's defensive policy 
had been criticised by the authorities 
at Richmond, it seemed necessary for 
Hood to assume the offensive. Three 
times, therefore, he attacked Sherman, 
and each time he was completely re- 
pulsed with terrible slaughter. After 
this, Sherman executed another flank 
movement, taking with him his entire 
supply train with fifteen days' rations, 
and moving his whole force so as to cut 
off completely Hood's line of supplies. 
This brought about the evacuation of 
the city, September 2d, 1864. 

620. The Results of Sherman's Success. 
— Sherman had now been four months 
on the march. He had fought ten pitched battles and many smaller 
engagements, and although he had lost fully thirty thousand men, 
yet he had inflicted a heavy loss upon the Confederate army and 
had cut them off from their source of manufactured supplies. At 
Atlanta and other towns in Georgia were large manufacturing estab- 
lishments which furnished the Confederate army with wagons, har- 
nesses, clothing, and all sorts of military supplies. The source of 
these supplies was now entirely cut off. 

621. Hood invades Tennessee. — At this point an unexpected turn 
of affairs takes place. Whatever supplies Sherman received from 
Union sources were brought to him over a single line of railroad from 
Nashville. Hood evidently supposed that if he should invade Ten- 
nessee, cutting off the source of Sherman's supplies, Sherman would 



Philip Henry Sheridan, the hero 
of Winchester, was born March 6th, 
1831, at Albany, N. Y. As a boy, 
'* Phil " showed signs of a fondness for 
military affairs. He graduated from 
West Point in 1853, and for about eight 
years served in the western Territories. 
Colonel Sheridan's active service in 
the Civil War began in the summer of 
1862, in Mississippi. Transferred, a 
little late,*-, to the Army of the Ohio, 
he was made major-general for his 
bravery in the battle of Murfrees- 
boro. In 1864 General Sheridan took 
command of the cavalry corps of ihe 
Army of the Potomac, and to the end 
of the war he proved the right man in 
the right place. Sheridan was made 
lieutenant-general in 1869, and on his 
death-bed was honored with the rank 
of general. Generals Grant and Sher- 
man were the only ones who had 
previously held that rank. General 
Sheridan died August 5th, 1888. 



324 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1864 






be obliged to follow him, which would transfer the battle-ground 
from the heart of Georgia back northward into Tennessee. In this 
he was mistaken ; and when Hood started northward with his whole 
army of forty thousand men, Sherman cut entirely loose from his 
base of supplies, pushed on toward Savannah, subsisting his army 

entirely upon the country through 
which he passed. The two armies 
had been fighting each other, but 
now each was hurrying away from 
the other with all possible speed. 
Hood crossed the Tennessee River, 
compelling General Schofield to fall 

back to a fortified position at Frank- 

^^^^JH^M|^™1»^'^/^-'/^ .^ lin, on the Harpeth, twenty miles 
^ ' »"WH[i^lP^vilSs / ^/'" below Nashville. The battle of 

Franklin was one of the most des- 
perate of the war, the Confederates 
losing four generals and nearly six 
thousand men. Schofield repelled 
all attacks, destroyed the bridges, 
and withdrew in good order to Nash- 
ville, leaving about two hundred wounded behind. Hood crossed the 
Harpeth and advanced to the siege of Nashville, feeling confident ot 
its capture. This place was thoroughly fortified, the Union forces 
being under the command of General Thomas. After a siege of 
two weeks, during which nothing had been accomplished, Thomas 
marched out of his intrenchments, and after severe fighting for two 
days drove the Confederates out of their intrenchments, captured 
many prisoners, and forced Hood to a precipitate retreat. Hood's 
army was now destroyed. 

622. Sherman's March to the Sea. — Sherman, confronted by no 
considerable military force, burned the depots, factories, and impor- 
tant buildings in Atlanta, and, dividing his force into columns, pushed 
onward across Georgia toward the sea, destroying the railroads and 
foraging upon the country. After a march of five weeks, covering 
three hundred miles, he reached the coast, took Fort McAllister and 
captured Savannah, December 21st, 1864. Sherman had now accom- 
pHshed with entire success one of the most famous marches in all 




General William T. Sherman. 



1864] 



SHERMAN AND JOHNSTON. 



325 



modern history. He had devastated a tract of country sixty miles 
wide and three hundred long in the heart of the enemy's territory. 
He had destroyed three hundred miles of railroad, as well as the 
principal sources of the enemy's military supplies, and had demon- 
strated the weakness of the Confederacy. Sherman passed the win- 
ter in Georgia and South Carolina, constantly harassing whatever 







■^^ ytfe •'.•,•■, V, .,■■;,.■""" rx Ralei 

lisbur^ 



'Ms 



Averysboro! 



pldsboro 



larlotte ^ 

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( ,i<X.Phickam3uga >i/ ^ \« *) {\ /_ RockirtghamL^ 

bA\\Qy\/f^^;;^v^:'y^ I { Grtlnville Che^er/) ^ Chera^ 

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ColmTibus 



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Savannc 



Irwinsville 



Charlestqr 



Port Royal 

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JacksonyjJ, 



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SOUTHERN COAST 
STATES 



SCALC 0^ MILtS 



forces of the enemy he could find, and capturing one point after 
another, with constant regard to the cutting off of supplies for the 
Confederate army. 

623. Mobile Bay. — While Generals Grant and Lee were facing 
each other in Virginia, and Generals Sherman and Johnston were 
fighting about Atlanta, the great naval battle of the war occurred in 
Mobile Bay. Admiral Farragut, with a fleet of fourteen wooden and 
four iron-clad vessels, attacked Admiral Buchanan, who commanded 
three gunboats and one ram. Buchanan was also aided by the 
three strongly garrisoned forts, Gaines, Morgan, and Powell, at the 



1865] THE END OF THE WAR. 327 

entrance to the harbor. The first disaster was the destruction of 
the Union iron-clad " Tecumseh," which was sunk by a torpedo. 
Farragut, with great bravery, ran his flagship *' Hartford " into the 
thickest of the cannonading, and finally succeeded in capturing the 
ram *' Tennessee," but not until she had become unmanageable. 
The other Confederate vessels were destroyed or driven ofi". After 
being shelled for several days, Fort Powell was abandoned, and the 
other forts surrendered. The contest lasted from August 5th to 
the 23d, 1864. 



CHAPTER LXXVI. 

THE END OF THE WAR. 

624. The Capture of Five Forks. — On March 29th, 1865, Sheridan, 
with a large body of cavalry and a strong force of infantry, pushed 
out from Grant's left wing with the intention of passing around to 
Lee's rear, thereby cutting off his supplies. He succeeded in plant- 
ing a strong force of infantry behind the Confederates at Five 
Forks, which was a small place about twelve miles westward from 
Petersburg. April ist the garrison surrendered, and Sheridan took 
five thousand prisoners. Lee at once saw that he could no longer 
maintain his position. The enemy had turned his right flank, and 
he was threatened with an attack in the rear. 

625. The Fall of Richmond. — At four o'clock Sunday morning, 
April 2d, the entire Union army began an advance along the whole 
line. Before noon the Confederate intrenchments were in many 
places deserted and thousands of prisoners were captured. That day 
while the Confederate President Davis was at church, a messenger 
handed him a note. This was from General Lee, informing him thai 
it was necessary for the Confederate army to leave Richmond imme- 
diately. He at once left the church and hastily withdrew from the 
city. That night both Petersburg and Richmond were evacuated, 
and the next morning the Federal troops marched into the 
Confederate capital. 

626. Lee surrenders his Army at Appomattox. — Lee retreated toward 
Lynchburg with the intention of making his way to North Carolina 



328 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1865 



and joining Johnston, who was now in command of the remnants of 
Hood's army. Grant immediately gave chase. The cavalry under 
Sheridan passed around beyond the Confederates, thereby cutting off 
their retreat to Lynchburg. Nothing remained for the brave Con- 
federate general but to surrender. In answer to a flag of truce, the 

two great generals met at Appomattox, 
and Lee proposed to surrender the rem- 
nants of his army. On the afternoon 
of April 9tli, 1865, therefore, the army 
of Virginia laid down their arms near 
Appomattox Court House and turned 
toward their homes. Grant accepted 
their paroles not to take up arms 
against the United States until ex- 
changed, and allowed all officers to re- 
tain their private baggage and horses. 
Nearly thirty thousand Confederate 
officers and soldiers were paroled at 
Appomattox and their arms given up. 
627. Sherman's March through the 
Carolinas. — In February Sherman 
started his army on the march north- 
ward. As before, it moved in columns, 
covering a breadth of fifty miles. He 
captured Columbia and it was burned 
at night. The Confederates evacuated 
Charleston. Johnston, being now in 
command, opposed Sherman's advance with great vigor. Sherman 
pushed forward to Goldsboro' and was joined by General Schofield, 
who had come up from Wilmington, and General Terry from New- 
bern. When these three armies were united, they numbered not less 
than a hundred thousand men. On the 26th of April Johnston surren- 
dered his army to General Sherman on the same terms as had been 
given to Lee by Grant. On the 4th of May General Taylor in Ala- 
bama surrendered his force to General Canby, on substantially the 
same terms, with the additional stipulation that "Transportation and 
subsistence is to be furnished at public cost for the officers and men, 
after surrenderj to the nearest practicable point to their homes," 



William Tecumseh Sherman, the 
hero of the Civil War, was born in 
Ohio, February 8th, 1820, and died 
February 14th, 1891. He was gradu- 
ated with high rank from the West 
Point Academy in 1S40, and at once 
served in Florida, in the Seminole 
War. He remained in the army until 
1853, when he resigned his commission 
and entered business. Captain Sher- 
man rejoined the army immediately 
upon the outbreak of the Civil War, 
and with the rank of colonel, took part 
in the first battle of Bull Run. He 
was promoted for gallantry, being 
made brigadier-general. The next 
year General Sherman joined General 
Grant's army, and after the battle of 
Shiloh was made major-general. In 
1864 General Grant was placed in 
command of the entire army, and Gen- 
eral Sherman was given the charge of 
the armies of the Mississippi, the 
Ohio, the Curnberland, and the Ten- 
nessee. After the war. General Sher- 
man was made lieutenant-general, and 
in 1869 General of the Armies of the 
United States. In 1883 he retired from 
the army, and lived in New York City 
until his death in 1891. 



1865] 



THE END OF THE WAR. 



329 



628. The End. — Other smaller Confederate forces soon after sur- 
rendered, and the war was at an end. The entire number of Confed- 
erate soldiers paroled in their several armies was one hundred and 
seventy-four thousand two hundred and twenty-three. Some regi- 
ments were reduced to such an extent that they could muster but 
from eleven to sixty-five men. Ten 
regiments consolidated numbered but 
two hundred and thirty-eight men. 
Eight regiments of Texans, originally 
ten thousand strong, numbered four 
hundred and fifty-six in all. The Union 
muster-rolls on the first of March ag- 
gregated nearly a million men all told, 
while the entire number of men mus- 
tered into the national service during 
the war was two million six hundred and 
eighty-eight thousand five hundred and 
twenty-three. This included all sorts 
of enlistments in periods of from three 
months to four years (IT638). 

629. Assassination of President Lincoln. 
■ — As soon as Richmond was evacu- 
ated. President Lincoln, who had gone 
to the front to confer with Grant con- 
cerning his final movement against Lee, made a hasty visit to Rich- 
mond, took a drive through the principal streets, and returned to 
Washington on the day of Lee's surrender. On the evening of 
April 14th, the President, while seated in a box overlooking the stage 
at Ford's Theatre, was shot by an assassin who leaped over the rail- 
ing upon the stage, shouted, *' Sic semper tyraiinis^' and escaped 
from the building. The President lingered a few hours, and at his 
death the wail of the people north, south, east, and west was univer- 
sal and their grief beyond expression. The joy of the nation at the 
prospect of peace was suddenly turned into the deepest mourning. 
The assassin, John Wilkes Booth, an actor, was pursued for several 
days and finally overtaken and shot. 

630. Capture of Jefferson Davis. — President Davis and his family, 
his cabinet and military guard, hastily left Richmond by rail, and 



The "Alabama" was the most 
famous of tlie English-built privateers 
employed by the Confederates. It 
captured scores of American mer- 
chantmen, and made long and pros- 
perous cruises in various parts of the 
world. The "Alabama" sailed into 
the French harbor of Cherbourg, and 
soon the Federal gunboat, " Kear- 
sarge," appeared outside the harbor. 
The commander of the "Alabama" 
challenged the " Kearsarge " to fight, 
which offer was immediately accepted. 
The two vessels were fairly matched, 
and the battle began a little before 
noon, June 19th, 1S64. The French 
thionged the neighboring shores, and 
saw the " Kearsarge" sink the "Ala- 
bama" within two hours after the first 
gun was fired. This destruction of the 
terrible privateer caused great rejoic- 
ing throughout the Union, which 
was increased by the capture of the 
" Georgia," in August, and of the 
"Florida" in October of the same 
year. 



330 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1861-1865 




escaped to Danville. Here he heard of Lee's surrender and imme- 
diately retreated to Greensboro', North Carolina. There leaving the 
railroad, he pushed forward to Washington, Georgia. Meanwhile, 
his guard, which had consisted of two thousand cavalry soldiers, 
gradually dwindled away, and his cabinet officers one by one deserted 

him. Journeying now by wagon 
and on horseback, he encamped 
for the night at Irwinsville, Georgia, 
and on the morning of the lOth of 
May he was captured. He was im- 
prisoned in Fortress Monroe, but 
was finally set at liberty without a 
trial, largely at the solicitation of 
I r race Greeley of New York. The 
L nitcd States executed no one for 
tic ison, at the close of the war. 

631. Civil Affairs. — The preced- 
ing pages have carried the history 
of the Civil War to its end. In 
order to obtain a consecutive ac- 
count of the military affairs, many 
of the civil matters have been omitted, and will be discussed at 
this point. The Department of the Treasury was one of the most 
important during these four years. It belonged to Secretary Chase 
to devise means for obtaining the vast revenue which was needed 
to carry on the war (IT 599). One of the last acts of the Congress 
which ended March 3, 1861, was to pass the so-called "Morrill 
Tariff Act." Since 1846 the system of a tariff for revenue had 
been used by the government, but the tariff of 1 86 1 was a distinctly 
protective measure. After the war began, the duties on imports 
were frequently increased until they became nearly three times as 
large as in 1861. 

632. Internal Revenue. — The other source of Income which has 
been commonly employed by the nation is that of the Internal 
Revenue. The most common form is the excise tax, levied on 
goods made and sold within the country. Besides the excise, taxes 
were levied on incomes, legal documents, and in other ways, all of 
which were classed as internal revenue. These taxes were greatly 



Salmon P. Chase. 



(From a negative in the possession of the U. S. 
Government.) 



I86I-I865] 



THE END OF THE WAR. 



331 



increased during President Lincoln's administration, so that about 
three hundred million dollars were raised in this manner in one year. 

633. Bonds. — These two sources of revenue proved to be far 
from sufficient. It soon became necessary to borrow money for the 
use of the government. The banks and 
well-to-do people loaned money to the 
government by the purchase of United 
States bonds. These bonds were prom- 
ises to pay certain sums, at some future 
date, with a specified rate of interest. 
The thousands of millions of dollars 
thus obtained imposed an enormous 
debt upon the government. Of this 
about two-thirds has been paid since 
the war. 

634. National Banks. — As an accom- 
paniment of these revenue measures, 
Congress, in February, 1863, created 
the National Bank system. By this 
plan banks could acquire a national 
charter, could purchase United States 
bonds, and, by deposit of these bonds 
in the public treasury, could issue bank-notes. A tax was also 
placed on the issue of such notes by any bank that did not hold 
a United States charter, and thus such issues have since that date 
been limited to the National Banks. The immediate cause for estab- 
lishing this system was the need of a 
more efficient method of borrowing 
money. The system has been contin- 
ued, and, with slight modifications, is 
still in use. The notes are perfectly 
safe, as the bonds in the Treasury more 
than cover their value, and they are 

very convenient, as they are of equal value throughout the country. 

635. New States. — Soon after the beginning of the war, the west- 
ern part of Virginia separated from the seceding State, and West 
Virginia was admitted to the Union, June 19th, 1863. The next year, 
October 31st, 1864, the thirty-sixth State, Nevada, was admitted. 



Salmon Portland Chase, a native 
of New Hampshire, was born January 
13th, 1808. After being admitted to 
the bar, he removed to Ohio. In 1849 
he was elected to the United States 
Senate, and in 1855 was chosen gov- 
ernor of Ohio. He was re-elected to 
the Senate in 1859. In 1861 he was 
appointed Secretary of the Treasury, 
and in 1864, Chief Justice of the Su- 
preme Court. He died May 7th, 
1S73. Secretary Chase was, through- 
out his life, an earnest opponent of 
slavery. He was originally a Demo- 
crat, but he joined the Liberty party 
at its organization. Later he belonged 
to the Free-Soil party, and finally be- 
came a Republican. His position dur- 
ing the Civil War, at the head of the 
Treasury Department, was a very diffi- 
cult one, and he fulfilled the duties 
with the greatest energy. The Na- 
tional Bank System, which has been 
tried for thirty years, was adopted in 
accordance with his advice. 



Nevada was settled as late as 1849. 
From its great silver mines it is called 
the "Silver State." Mining is al- 
most the only industry of the State, 
although in certain sections there is a 
little agriculture. The population is 
about forty-two thousand. 



zz^ 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1864 



636. Presidential Election. — In the campaign of 1864, there were 
but two parties in the field. The Repubhcan National Convention 

renominated President Lincoln, chose 
Andrew Johnson of Tennessee as the 
candidate for Vice-President, and de- 
clared for a continued prosecution of 
the war, and the abolition of slavery. 
The Democratic National Convention 
pronounced the war a failure, insisted 
that hostilities should cease, and chose 
as its candidates General George B. 
McClellan of New Jersey, and George 
H. Pendleton of Ohio. Twenty-five 
States cast their votes for presidential 
electors in November. Two hundred 
and twelve electors representing twenty-two States voted for Lincoln 
and Johnson, and twenty-one electors from three States for McClellan 
and Pendleton. 



"West Virginia. — The western and 
the eastern sections of the State of Vir- 
ginia were separated from each other 
by the Alleghany Mountains. The 
different climate, soil, and occupations 
tended to alienate one portion from the 
other. When Virginia decided to join 
the Confederacy, the western section 
remained loyal to the Union. An 
organization was formed, a constitu- 
tion was adopted, and the State of 
West Virginia was admitted to the 
Union. With a population of over 
nine hundred thousand, the " Little 
Mountain State" is devoting its atten- 
tion primarily to mining and manufac- 
tures. 



CHRONOLOGY. 



1861. President Lincoln inaugurated, March 4. 
Fort Sumter surrendered, April 14. 

Call for troops, April 15. 

Mob at Baltimore, April 19. 

Second Secession, April, May, and June. 

Meeting of Congress, July 4. 

Battle of Bull Run, July 21. 

Battle of Wilson's Creek, August 10. 

Capture of Fort Hatteras, August 29. ^ 

Battle of Ball's Bluff, October 21. 

Capture of Port Royal, November 7. 

The Trent affair, November 8. 

Battle of Belmont, November. 

1862. Capture of Fort Henry, February 6. 
Capture of Roanoke Island, February 8. 
Capture of Fort Donelson, February 16. 
Battle of Monitor and Merrimac, March 9, 
Battle of Shiloh, April 6 and 7. 
Capture of Island No. 10, April 7. 



1862-1865] CHRONOLOGY. 333 

1862. Capture of Fort Pulaski, April 11. 
Capture of New Orleans, April 25. 
Capture of Yorktown, May 4. 
Battle of Williamsburg, May 5. 
Capture of Corinth, May 30. 

Battle of Fair Oaks and Seven Pines, May 31, June I. 

Jackson's raid, June. 

Seven Days' battle, June 25 to July i. 

Pope's campaign, August. 

Second battle of Bull Run, August 29, 30. 

Battle of South Mountain, September 14. 

Capture of Harper's Ferry, September 15. 

Battle of Antietam, September 17. 

First Emancipation Proclamation, September 22. 

Battle of Fredericksburg, December 13. 

Battle of Stone River, December 31 to January 2, 1863. 

1863. Second Emancipation Proclamation, January i. 
Siege of Suffolk, April 10 to May 3. 

Battle of Chancellorsville, May 2, 3. 

Battle of Gettysburg, July i to 3. 

Capture of Vicksburg, July 4, 

Capture of Port Hudson, July 9. 

Battle of Chickamauga, September 19, 20. 

Siege of Knoxville, November and December. 

Battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, November 24, 25 

1864. Grant made lieutenant-general, March 3. 
Battles of the Wilderness, May 5 to 7. 
Siege of Petersburg, June 16 to April 2, 1865. 
Battle of Kearsarge and Alabama, June 19. 
Battle of Mobile Bay, August 5 to 23. 
Capture of Atlanta, September 2. 

Battle of Winchester, September 19. 

Sherman's march to the sea begins, November 12. 

Battle of Franklin, November 30. 

Battle of Nashville, December 15, 16. 

Capture of Savannah, December 21. 

1865. Capture of Columbia, February 17. 
Capture of Charleston, February 18. 
Battle of Five Forks, April i. 
Petersburg captured, April 2. 

Fall of Richmond, April 3. 
Surrender at Appomattox, April 9. 
Assassination of Lincoln, April 14. 
Surrender of Johnson, April 26. 
Capture of Davis, May 10. 



■Blacfeboatti anal^jids. 



Presidents 



Johnson 1 865-1 869 

Grant 1869-1877 

Hayes 1877-1881 

Garfield and Arthur . . 1 881-1885 

Cleveland 1 885-1 889 

Hakrison 1889-1893 

Cleveland 1 893-1 897 



Matters of Importance 



r Amendments. 
Reconstruction. 
Resumption. 
Silver. 
Tariff. 
Civil Service. 
Australian Ballot. 
Labor. 
Immigkation. 



New States 



Nebraska 1867 

Colorado 1876 

Washington 1889 

South Dakota 1889 

North Dakota ...... 1889 

Montana . 1889 

Idaho 1890 

Wyoming ........ 1890 

L Utah 1896 



334 




The Qrest- t&s^cm l»yin<) tha ^^UMU C&ble. 



SECTION XII. 

THE NATION AT PEACE. 1865-1896. 



CHAPTER LXXVII. 



RECONSTRUCTION. 



637. The End of the War. — President Johnson, soon after hi 
accession, issued a proclamation that the war was over. Peace 
however, brought its difficulties, greater almost than those of war. 
In North and South new and untried problems presented them- 
selves for solution. Of these questions some were social, some 
political, and some financial. 

638. The Army. — What was .to be the future of the soldiers com- 
posing the two armies? Such vast military forces had never been 
called into actual service in the history of modern warfare. More 
than two and a half million men had been enrolled in the Union 
army during the war and nearly one and a half million in the army 
of the Confederacy. There were more than a million soldiers in the 
service of the War Department, in the spring of 1865. 

639. The Review. — The close of the war found the two great 
U«^on armies under Grant and Sherman within a short distance of 
each other. A great military review was held in Washington, near 
the end of May. For two days, the column, thirty miles in length, 
moved along Pennsylvania Avenue past the reviewing stand, where 
was the President, with members of his Cabinet and of Congress. 
These one hundred and fifty thousand patriots, many having served 
for four years, marched through throngs of people, amid enthusiastic 
expressions of gratitude and thanksgiving. It was a wonderful 
sight. 



336 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1865 



¥V^ 




640. Disbanding. — Within a few months this multitude of soldiers 
was honorably discharged and returned to their homes. Only a 
small army of about fifty thousand men remained, to *' execute the 
laws of the Union." Many expressions of fear were heard that the 

disbandment could not quietly take 
place. Great anxiety was felt as to 
the future occupations of these men, 
who, for so long a time, had known 
no service but that of war. But 
the fears proved groundless, as the 
soldiers returned to their homes and' 
quietly took up their various occupa- 
^^'^ tions, as though no war had called 
»'\ them away. This was one of the 
greatest victories for our free govern- 
ment and its principles. 

641. The Debt. — It is impossible 
to estimate the cost of this great nivij 
war. Enormous taxes had been col- 
Andrew Johnson. Icctcd, and an immense debt had 

been incurred. The revenue of the United States had been nearly a 
thousand million dollars, while the debt in 1865 was more than three 
times as much. The nation had been spending two, three, and four 
million dollars a day during a portion of the war. What was to be 
the financial future of the country? This was settled as quietly 
as the other question. The government simply adopted the honor- 
able method of paying the debt as fast as possible. Within twenty 
years, one billion, two hundred million dollars had been paid, besides 
the one hundred and fifty million dollars, annually, of accruing inter- 
est. The debt reached its lowest point in 1891, when nearly half of 
it had been paid. The Spanish war and troubles in the Philippines 
have increased it over five hundred millions. 

642. The South. — This debt was only a portion of the cost of the 
war. Millions of dollars are being paid every year for pensions. 
The destruction of property was enormous, and a large proportion 
of this fell upon the Southern States. In fact, the South was com- 
pletely ruined at the end of the war. The slave property was gone, 
there was no money, and manufactures they had never had. Here 



i865] 



RECONSTRUCTION. 



337 



Andrew Johnson, the seventeenth 
President of tlie United States, was 
born in North Carolina in 1808. He 
was without educational advantages 
in his earlier life, and is said to have 
learned to write after his marriage. 
In spite of these drawbacks, he was 
elected to Congress in 1843, where he 
spent ten years. After serving as 
Governor of Tennessee for four years, 
he was chosen to represent that State 
in the Senate. He strongly opposed 
the secession of his State, and in 1862 
was made its military governor, after 
the capture of Nashville. His activity 
in this position led to his nomination 
as the Republican candidate for Vice- 
President in 1864 After his Presiden- 
tial term, he remained in active life. 
He was again chosen to the Senate 
in 1875, but died July 31st of that 
year. 



was a third great question. What was to become of the South? 
Again this was answered by quiet attention to business. The ** New 
South " is a sufficient reply to the croaks of the pessimists. Had 
there been no political question and no 
social questions, the prosperity of the 
South would have been easily assured. 

643. The Results of the War. — The 
object of the war must not be forgotten. 
By it freedom was attained for four 
million human beings. But this was an 
incident, and not the reason for the war. 
The struggle decided the question that 
the States had not the right to secede 
from the Union. The nation was to be 
** one and indivisible," and the United 
States was to be one great power, and 
not two parts always at enmity with 
each other. This, the greatest war in 
all history, also proved the wonderful 
strength of the Republic, and placed it in the front rank of the 
nations of the world. 

64:4. Emancipation. — President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclama- 
tion ( 1" 600) had not freed all the slaves. It did not apply to the 
States which had permitted slavery, but had not joined the Confed- 
eracy. Certain portions of the " seceding " States also were exempted 
from its application. An amendment was proposed by Congress, and, 
when ratified by three-fourths of the States, was declared a portion of 
the Constitution, December 18th, 1865. This, the Thirteenth Amend- 
ment, forever forbade slavery within the limits of the United States. 

645. Southern States. — As soon as the Southern States had laid 
down their arms, the question as to their future political status pre- 
sented itself Were these States in or out of the Union? Could 
they still be reckoned as States, or should they be classed as terri- 
tories conquered by the Union armies? These questions were never 
answered, though the method of reconstruction seems to imply the 
latter. A less theoretical question was, whether the Southern States, 
under their former leaders, should be allowed to take their old place 
in the Union. 

22 



33^ 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1865-1868 



646. Freedmen. — The President's plan was to permit the States 
to send senators and representatives to Congress, as soon as they 
repealed their acts of secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amend 
ment. The action taken by the new governments in these reorganized 
States in regard to the freedmen prevented Congress from accepting 
this plan. The South had no faith that the negro would be willing 
to labor except under compulsion, and therefore many of the States 
passed laws compelling the freedmen to work. The penalties pro- 
posed were very severe, and many Northern leaders felt that the con- 
dition of the negro would be practically as bad as under slavery. 




Laying an Atlantic Cable. 

647. Reconstruction. — In spite of the President's opposition, Con 
gress passed certain '* Acts of Reconstruction," as they were called. 
These provided that the States should be admitted to Congress only 
when new governments should be formed, of a character which 
would pledge safety to the negroes. For this purpose, Congress put 
the districts under military governors, and voted that freedmen 
should be allowed to assist in forming the new governments: 
When these were formed and had ratified the Fourteenth Amend- 
ment, the States might be again represented in Congress. 



I 865-1 870] 



RECONSTRUCTION. 



339 



648. The Fourteenth Amendment.— In 1866 Congress passed an- 
other amendment, which was ratified by three-fourths of the States, 
and became a part of the Constitution, July 28th, 1868. This 
amendment consisted of several distinct parts. It declared that no 
State should deprive any citizen of his rights ; that those who, having 
once sworn to uphold the Constitution of the United States, had 
taken up arms against it, should be ineligible to office ; and that the 
United States debt should be valid, while that of the Confederacy 
should never be paid (Appendix B, Amend, xiv.). 

649. Readmission. — One by one the Southern States were re- 
admitted, as soon as they accepted the plan which Congress had 
proposed. Tennessee was the first to 
respond, and its representation in Con- 
gress was regained in 1866. By the 
summer of 1868 six others had become 
reconstructed. Georgia, Virginia, 
Texas, and Mississippi refused for a 
time to make State governments in 
which the ex-slaves should be the po- 
litical equals of the former slave-owners, 
and not until 1870 did they fulfil the 
conditions for readmission. For nearly 
ten years these States were without rep- 
resentation in Congress. 

650. The President. — During all the 
contest over reconstruction, the quarrel 
between the President and Congress 
grew more and more bitter. The Presi- 
dent was a War Democrat, and could no more agree with the Repub- 
lican Congress than President Tyler could with the Whigs. Johnson 
vetoed many of the important bills sent to him, but, as the Republi- 
cans had a two-thirds majority, they passed them over the veto. 
Finally the quarrel culminated in the ''Tenure of Office" act, which 
forbade the President's removing certain officials without the consent 
of the Senate. 

651. Impeachment. — President Johnson believed that the au- 
thority for removals was vested in him alone, and that the Senate 
had no right to interfere. He removed Edwin M. Stanton from h'f 



Atlantic Cable. — To Cyrus W, 
Field is due the honor for the suc- 
cess of the Atlantic Cable. In 1856 
a telegraph line was built from New 
York to Newfoundland, and a com- 
pany was organized to lay a tele- 
graph cable from Newfoundland to 
Ireland. After two unsuccessful at- 
tempts, in July, 1858, a message was 
sent by Queen Victoria to President 
Buchanan, and a reply was received. 
On September 1st, for some unaccount- 
able reason, the cable ceased to work, 
but Mr. Field was not dismayed. He 
formed a new company and, after an- 
other failure, finally succeeded. The 
" Great Eastern " laid the third cable 
in 1866, and repaired the second, 
which had parted the year before. 
Ever since, Europe and America have 
had instantaneous communication with 
each other. 



340 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1863-1868 

position as Secretary of War, and refused to pay attention to the 
Senate's action in the matter. The House of Representatives voted 
in February, 1868, to impeach the President, as having broken the 
laws. The Senate, sitting as a court of impeachment, proceeded 
to try the President, and came to a vote, May 26th. Thirty-five 
declared him guilty, and nineteen not guilty. Inasmuch as, by the 
Constitution, a two-thirds vote of the Senate is necessary for con- 
viction. President Johnson was acquitted. One vote more against 
him would have resulted in conviction. 

652. Foreign Affairs. — When the Civil War began. Napoleon III., 
Emperor of France, determined to make an attempt to revive the 
power of France on this continent. He sent an army into Mexico 
and conquered the country in 1 863. The next year he made 

Maximilian, an Austrian, Emperor of 



Nebraska, or" Black Water," was 
first settled in 1847. The Territory 
was organized in 1854. Like Kansas, 
it was a portion of Louisiana, and 
made famous by the Kansas- Nebraska 
Bill. The size of the Territory was 
twice reduced until, at present, it is 
purely a prairie State. The building 
of railroads led immigrants into this 
fertile Territory. Cereals and fruits 
form the basis of its agriculture and 
its soil is unusually adapted to stock- 
raising. The population is a little 
over a million. 



Mexico. The United States protested, 
but was unable to do more at the time. 
When the war was ended, the protest was 
changed to a demand that the French 
troops should be withdrawn from the 
country. Napoleon complied, but Max- 
imilian refused to abdicate. After the 
French troops were gone, the Mexicans 
rose, defeated, and captured the Em- 
peror, who was shot, June 19th, 1867. 
The same year, a purchase of territory was made by the United 
States. Russia was only too glad to dispose of her possessions in 
North America, and sold Alaska for the sum of seven million two 
hundred thousand dollars. This purchase added nearly six hundred 
thousand to the three million square miles of area previously pos- 
sessed. The products of Alaska in lumber, fish, and furs have more 
than repaid its cost. Rich gold discoveries were made along the 
Yukon, at Circle Cit>^ and in the Klondike region, in 1896 and 1897. 
653. Domestic Affairs. — In 1866, an organization of Irish-Ameri- 
cans, called Fenians, thought to aid their native country by fighting 
the English in Canada. Several hundred crossed the line from 
Buffalo, and others from St. Albans, Vermont, but the disturbance 
was soon quieted by the prompt action of the President, who issued 
a proclamation condemning the movement. 



1866-1870] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 34 1 

The same year saw the first successful laying of the Atlantic cable. 
Several attempts had been made previous to this time, but not until 
July 27th, 1866, was permanent communication opened under the 
ocean. This and subsequent ocean cables have done much to bring 
the ends of the earth nearer, and " make the world akin." 

Nebraska, the thirty-seventh State, was admitted to the Union, 
March ist, 1867. 

654. Presidential Election. — The question of reconstruction was 
the great issue before the people in 1868. The Republicans 
nominated for President the great general, Ulysses S. Grant, and 
associated with him Schuyler Colfax of Indiana. The Democratic 
candidate was Horatio Seymour, ex-Governor of New York. Three 
States were not allowed to participate in this election, and but 294 
electoral votes were cast. Of these, Grant and Colfax received 214, 
and were declared elected. 



CHAPTER LXXVIII. 

GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 

655. The Treaty of Washington. — Several grounds of controversy 
had arisen between the United States and Great Britain during the 
ten years previous to 1870. After some futile attempts to settle these 
difficulties, a conmiission consisting of five men to represent Eng- 
land, and five to present the claims of the United States, met at 
Washington, in 1871. The treaty which was finally signed, May 8th, 
referred all the matters in dispute to arbitration. This method of 
settlement proved vastly superior to the more common method ol 
issuing a declaration of war. 

656. The "Alabama" Claims. — In 1862 certain vessels were fitted 
out in England to aid the Confederacy in its war with the United 
States. Great Britain had declared neutrality in the contest, and the 
United States claimed that she should have prevented the sailing of 
these vessels, and that she was partially responsible for the evils which 
had resulted. Many citizens brought suits for damages done by the 



342 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[187:2-1876 



" Alabama," one of these vessels, and the United States took up the 
cause of the ** Alabama " claims. By the Treaty of Washington, 
these claims were left to a commission of five men, — one each 
to be appointed by Great Britain, the United States, Switzerland, 
Italy, and Brazil. This commission met in Geneva, in September, 

1872, and, by the so-called " Genevan 
Awards," Great Britain paid fifteen and 
a half million dollars for the injuries 
resulting from her remissness in allow- 
ing the ** Alabama " to sail. 

657. Other Disputes. — The Treaty of 
Washington made the Emperor of 
Germany the arbitrator of the dispute 
as to the Northwest boundary. Em- 
peror William decided that the chan- 
nel, spoken of in the Treaty of 1846 
(IF 485), was the one to the west of the 
San Juan Island in Puget Sound, thus 
conceding that island to the United 
States, as she had claimed. For the 
first time, the entire boundary of the 
United States was without dispute. 

Another arbitration commission in- 
vestigated the disputes between Cana- 
dian and American fishermen. This 
difficulty was settled by the payment of five and a half million 
dollars by the United States. Some difficulties as to the fisheries 
were not settled, however, and have not been up to the present 
time (1896). 

658. The Indians. — What to do with the Indians has been a 
troublesome question ever since the white man came to this conti- 
nent. During the Civil War Minnesota was invaded by the Sioux to 
avenge injuries. Many skirmishes occurred in Dakota and Montana. 
Fetterman with eighty men was surprised and massacred in 1866. 
President Grant did not find the matter any easier to settle than had 
his predecessors. In 1872 the Modocs, of Southern Oregon, re- 
fused to be moved from one reservation to another, and a year's hard 
fighting was necessary before the Modoc War was ended. In 1876 



General Ulysses Simpson Grant, 
the eighteenth President of tlie United 
States, was born in Ohio, April 27th, 
1822, and died at Mount McGregor, 
New York, July 23d, 1885. He was 
graduated from West Point in 1843, 
and served in the Mexican War, first 
under General Taylor, and afterwards 
under General Scott. He was not a 
politician, but preferred the Repub- 
lican party, because of his strong 
unionist sentiments. He entered the 
Union army at the outset of the war, 
and was at once made brigadier-gen- 
eral. His capture of Fort Donelson 
won for him a major-generalship. In 
1864 he was made lieutenant-general, 
a grade which had been previously 
held only by Washington and Scott. 
In 1866 he was raised to the rank of 
general. President Grant has been 
usually considered one of the great- 
est generals the world has ever seen. 
" His deeds as general, his statesman- 
ship as President, and his example as 
an American citizen, have raised his 
country to a still higher position in the 
regard of the civilized world." 



I868-I872] 



GRANT»S ADMINISTRATIONS. 



343 



Sitting Bull, a chief of the Sioux Indians, also objected to a removal 
from the Black Hills, and the Sioux War followed. The Indians 
were finally conquered, but not until after an incident occurred 
which sent a feeling of horror over the country. General Custer 
met, at Big Horn, a band of the Sioux, which was ten times as large 
as his own force. Custer and his entire regiment were killed in the 
attack, the Indians allowing them no quarter whatever. 

659. Railroads. — During the four years from 1868 to 1872, thou- 
sands of miles of railways were built within the United States. In 
1869 the first railroad across the continent was completed. May 




Custer's Last Fight. 



(Copyright, 1896, Ijy bil.L 
Burdett & Company.) 



loth, the Union Pacific Railroad, more than one thousand miles long, 
was joined to the Central Pacific, nearly nine hundred miles in length, 
thus making a continuous line from New York to San Francisco, a 
distance of three thousand three hundred miles. The government 
gave great aid to these railroads, especially by presenting to them 
vast stretches of land, which they could sell to pioneers. Since 
then the Northern Pacific, the Southern Pacific, the Oregon Short 
Line, the Santa Fe, and the Great Northern railroads have been 
completed to the Pacific coast. 



Colorado. — The first certainly- 
known settlement in the "Centennial 
State " was in 1859, upon the discovery 
of gold near the present site of Denver. 
A territorial government was provided, 
in 1861, for the many immigrants, who 
hoped to find a second California. Be- 
sides its valuable mining industries, 
Colorado has great cattle-ranches, 
and manufactures are springing up 
throughout the State. Colorado is 
making vast strides, having more than 
doubled its population in the past ten 
years, until it has now over half a 
million. 



344 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1871-1876 

660. The Results. — In many respects, the first Pacific railroad 
far exceeded the expectations and hopes of its promoters. The 
great saving of time, whereby it takes no longer to travel from New 
York tc San Francisco than it did from New York to Boston a hun- 
dred years ago, has caused a revolution in business. The objection 
made, when Oregon was admitted (if 530), that a representative 
from that State would need to spend all his time travelling to and 

from Congress, causes only amusement 
to-day. The benefits to commerce re- 
sulting from these roads are incalculable, 
as is also the effect that they had in pro- 
moting the rapid growth of the West. 
August 1st, 1876, the *' Centennial 
State," Colorado, was admitted to the 
Union. 

661. Prosperity. — These four years 
were prosperous in all sections of the 
country. Gold and silver mines added 
vastly to the wealth of the nation, petro- 
leum and coal were obtained in greater quantities, wheat fields yielded 
their grains as never before, manufactures went on apace, population 
made vast strides, and soon the country had regained the position 
held before the war, and had gone far beyond it. 

662. Fires. — The prosperous condition is well shown by the way 
in which cities recovered from severe losses by fire. In October, 
1 87 1, a conflagration broke out in Chicago, which lasted two days 
and destroyed two hundred million dollars' worth of property. In 
November, 1872, Boston suffered a loss of seventy-five million dollars 
by a fire covering sixty acres of business blocks. The whole coun- 
try immediately responded to the calls for aid from the suffering 
people, millions of dollars being quickly subscribed. Each city 
began at once to rebuild, and, in a remarkably short time, all ves- 
tiges of the fire had disappeared, and the magnificent new build- 
ings seemed to prove that the disaster was a blessing rather than a 
curse. 

663. The Centennial. — The hundredth anniversary of the signing 
of the Declaration of Independence was celebrated by a World's 
Fair, at Philadelphia. The Centennial Exhibition, which lasted 



i873] 



GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 



345 



from May until November, 1876, far surpassed anything of its kind 
previously held. The Main Exhibition Hall covered twenty acres, 
and hundreds of other buildings were filled with proofs of the pros- 
perity of the United States and of other nations. The nearly ten 
million visitors to this exhibition of the world's industries received 
an education which could be obtained in no other way. The fair 
also resulted in an increased attention paid to inventions and labor- 
saving devices, as shown by the large number of patents granted 
during the next few years. 

664. The Panic. — In connection with the great prosperity of the 
country there was a large degree of speculation. More railroads 
were built than the country needed or could pay for. Millions of 




Memori 



dollars were spent upon investments which could not be produc- 
tive for a long time. As in 1837 and in 1857, so in 1873 there 
came a disturbance in all business circles. This lasted for sev- 
eral years, and not until 1880 did the country again feel a full tide 
of prosperity. 

665. Political Scandals. — The period of speculation was accom- 
panied by corruption among certain officials of the government. A 
ring was formed by the whiskey distillers and certain officers of the 



346 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1870-1872 



Internal Revenue Department, whereby the government ivas de- 
frauded of money, which went into the pockets of the ring. Besides 
the Whiskey Ring, certain Indian agents also conspired to defraud 
the government as well as the Indians. An investigation showed 
that members of Congress had received bribes in the form of stocks 
in the Credit Mobilier, — a company which was building the Pacific 
Railroad, and hoped to obtain certain favors from Congress. Politi- 
cal rings had grown up in the larger cities, which carried on the gov- 
ernment in a corrupt manner. As 
the exposures of these scandals came 
in connection with the great panic, 
this was a gloomy period for those 
who were most anxious for the wel- 
fare of the country. 

666. Grant re-elected. — Although 
the President was not implicated in 
any of these scandals, strong opposi- 
tion was made to his renomination 
by the Republicans. A branch of 
the party seceded, called themselves 
Liberal Republicans, and nominated 
Horace Greeley, editor of the '* New 
York Tribune," as their candidate 
for the Presidency. The Democrats 
were not strong at the time, and ratified the nomination of this life- 
long Republican. General Grant was re-elected, however, receiving 
two hundred and eighty-six out of the three hundred and forty- 
nine votes cast. Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was elected Vice- 
President. 

667. The Fifteenth Amendment. — In 1870 the third of the amend- 
ments which resulted from the war received a three-fourths vote of 
the States, and became a part of the Constitution. This Fifteenth 
Amendment provided that the right to vote In any State should not 
be denied " on account of race, color, or previous condition of servi- 
tude." In spite of the dense ignorance of the freedmen, negro suf- 
frage was made the law of the country. Though they owned little 
land and but a small amount of property, they had an equal power 
in the levying of taxes. 




Horace Greeley. 



1876-1877] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 347 

668. The Effect in the South. —The negroes naturally mistrusted 
their former masters and voted against them. Those persons who 
came from the North and sided with the negroes were called " Carpet- 
Baggers," because they were said to have brought nothing into the 
South except what they had in their carpet-bags. The Southerners 
who were willing to vote with the negroes were decried by the title 
" Scalawags." Disorder and almost warfare sprang up, both sides 
being doubtless to blame. An organization called the Ku Klux Klan 
was formed, with the avowed purpose of depriving the negroes of 
the ballot, and thereby saving the States, as they said, from ruin. 
This Klan caused a reign of terror to ensue, and Federal troops were 
sent into the South in order to protect the ballot-box and the 
negroes in their right to vote. 

669. Presidential Election. — The political scandals, the panic and 
the troubles in the South, caused a reaction against the party in 
power. In 1876 the Republicans nominated Governor R. B. Hayes 
of Ohio, and W. A. Wheeler of New York. The Democratic candi- 
dates were Samuel J. Tilden of New York, and T. A. Hendricks of 
Indiana (IF 673). There was no vital issue between the two parties, 
and the election proved very close. For weeks after the voting of 
the people, the country was in suspense as to the result. It was 
found that two sets of electors had voted in certain Southern States. 

670. An Electoral Commission. — In Florida and in Louisiana the 
largest number of votes were returned for the Democratic candi- 
dates. In each, the Returning Board, whose duty it was to count 
the votes, decided that there had been errors in certain districts. 
They therefore refused to count certain votes, which resulted in their 
declaring the election of the Republican electors. The Republican 
Senate and the Democratic House of Representatives could not 
agree as to which electors should be considered duly chosen. After 
a long controversy, it was decided by law to leave the matter to a 
commission, consisting of five Senators, five members of the House, 
and five Justices of the Supreme Court. This Electoral Commission, 
after careful consideration, decided in favor of Hayes and Wheeler, 
and they were declared elected by a vote of 185 to 184 for Tilden 
and Hendricks. 



348 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1877 



CHAPTER LXXIX. 



PROGRESS AND REFORM. 



671. Troops withdrawn from the South. — Although party spirit ran 
high, the country accepted the decision of the Electoral Commission, 

and President Hayes was inaugu- 
rated, March 5th, 1877. He was 
zealous for the greatest good of the 
whole country, and, though his ac- 
tion was the cause of much criticism 
from the political leaders of the 
North, he withdrew the Federal 
troops from the South. In some of 
the States their presence had kept 
in office Republican legislators, to 
whom the majority of the white peo- 
ple were strongly opposed. Their 
removal left the Southern States to 
work out unobstructed their own 
problems. The Democrats took 
control of affairs, and much of the 
ill feeling against the national govern- 
ment was allayed. 

672. Civil Service Reform. — After the 
close of the war, it became more and 
more evident that the Civil Service 
needed radical reform. ** Public office is 
a public trust," but hitherto P'ederal of- 
fices had been filled largely by political 
partisans, as a reward for political activity 
or party service. Consequently persons 

were frequently appointed who were • 

unfit to hold responsible positions, and the people demanded a more 
businesslike method of conducting public affairs. President Hayes 




Rutherford Burchard Hayes. 



Rutherford Burchard Hayes, born 
October 4th, 1822, was admitted to the 
Ohio bar in 1845. At the beginning of 
the war he went as a volunteer, with 
the rank of major. He served in the 
field throughout the war, and was made 
brigadier-general on account of his 
gallantry. He represented his State 
at Washington, and was twice the Re- 
publican Governor of Ohio. After his 
Presidency, Mr. Hayes lived in retire- 
ment, and was especially interested in 
philanthropic work. He died January 
17th, 1893. 



1877-1879] PROGRESS AND REFORM. 349 

pledged his supi)ort to this reform, and did all he could to inau- 
gurate it. 

673. Railroad Strike. — As the wealth of the nation has increased, 
hostility has grown up between employers and laborers. Demands 
are frequently made for higher wages and shorter hours of labor. 
These demands are often just, but sometimes the laborer does not 
understand the conditions, and the employer is unable to grant his 
requests. In 1877 the employees on the Baltimore & Ohio Rail- 
road protested against a reduction of wages, and left their work on 
a strike. Pittsburg was the centre of the difficulty. At one time 
something like one hundred thousand men were included in this self- 
imposed idleness. Great lawlessness prevailed, — freight houses, 
machine shops, and cars were burned ; and many people were killed 
or wounded. Troops were called out by the governor of Pennsyl- 
vania, and order was finally restored. The strike was unsuccessful, 
but the money losses it entailed amounted to many millions of 
dollars. 

The strike is the most common weapon used in the conflicts between 
labor and capital, but among the other weapons are the '' black list " 
and the *' boycott." The former is used by the employers, and a 
laborer who has the misfortune to get upon that list finds it hard 
to obtain work anywhere. The latter is used by the laborers, and 
consists in an agreement not to buy or allow others to buy the goods 
of certain employers, especially if they have used the black list. 

674. Specie Payments. — During the Civil War the banks all over 
the country suspended specie payment. That is, although all bank 
bills are to be redeemed at any time when called for by the holders 
of the bills, and their face value paid in gold and silver, yet during 
the war these banks refused to redeem their bills. At the same 
time the national government suspended specie payment ; it refused 
to redeem its bills (" Greenbacks " they were called). 

January ist, 1879, John Sherman, the Secretary of the Treasury, 
succeeded in bringing about the " resumption of specie payment." The 
government stood ready to pay gold or silver for any of the ** Green- 
backs " which the people wished to bring to it. The effect of resump- 
tion was to make the government notes of equal value with gold or 



350 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1879-1880 

silver, and, because of its greater convenience, paper money has been 
commonly preferred to specie. At about the same time, the Secre- 
tary was able to refund a large portion of the debt, i. c. borrow money 
at a lower rate of interest, in order to pay off the bonds carrying a 
higher rate. This resulted in the saving of millions of dollars to 
the United States Treasury. 

675. The Mississippi Jetties. — The Mississippi River pours a vast 
quantity of water into the Gulf of Mexico, but it also brings down a 
great amount of sediment. Much of this sinks to the bottom near 
the mouth of the river, thus obstructing the channel and hindering 
navigation. Captain James B. Eads, a civil engineer of ability, felt 
sure that if he could narrow the channels at the mouth of the Missis- 
sippi the resulting swiftness of the current not only would carry the 
sediment through, but would also continually deepen the river bed. 
Congress authorized the undertaking, and after four years of tireless 
labor Captain Eads completed a wall about three miles long on each 
side of the South Pass. By means of this jetty, as it is called, the 
ship channel of eight to ten feet was deepened to thirty feet. This 
remarkable piece of engineering has been of the greatest advantage 
to commerce, and has saved many millions of dollars which otherwise 
would have been expended in dredging. 

676. The Election of 1880. — Three parties were in the field in 1880. 
The Greenback party nominated J. B. Weaver of Iowa, and B. J. 
Chambers of Texas, and declared for a larger issue of " paper money " 
(IT 599) by the government. The Democratic candidates were Gen- 
eral W. S. Hancock of New York, and W. H. English of Indiana. 
The Republicans put in nomination General James A. Garfield of 
Ohio, and Chester A. Arthur of New York After a spirited cam- 
paign, the electors gave 2 1 4 votes for Garfield and Arthur, and 155 
for the Democratic candidates. 

677. Garfield's Assassination. — The first months of President Gar- 
field's term were rendered unpleasant by the troubles arising from 
appointments to ofiice. Since 1829 it had been the custom for 
every President to make wholesale removals, and to fill the positions 
with new men. This always imposes upon the President and his 
cabinet a large amount of unnecessary labor. The '' Spoils System " 



I88I-I885] 



PROGRESS AND REFORM. 



351 




James Abram Garfield. 



has also been injurious to the efficiency of the government, by re- 
moving tried officials and replacing thein with inexperienced men. 
July 2d, 1 88 1, President Garfield 
was shot by a disappointed office- 
seeker, named Guiteau. The Presi- 
dent suffered for weeks, and died 
September 19th. The assassin was 
tried, convicted, and hanged. 

Upon the death of President Gar- 
field, Vice-President Arthur became 
President for the remainder of the 
four years. He was not widely 
known in political circles, but he dis- 
played good judgment in managing 
executive affairs, although under dif- 
ficult circumstances. 

678. Anti-Polygamy Bill. — Polyg- 
amy was still practiced by the Mormons in Utah and in the ad- 
jacent territories, and in 1882 Senator Edmunds of Vermont 
introduced a bill into Congress to prohibit plural marriages. The 
bill passed, and in 1890 the Mormon Church announced that it 
had abandoned polygamy and that the law would be obeyed. 

679. The Pendleton Bill. — The assassination of President Garfield 
aroused the attention of the country more fully to the evils of the 
Federal office system, and in 1883 Congress acceded to the popular 
demand and passed the '' Pendleton Civil Service Bill." This act 
authorized the President to appoint commissioners who, by examina- 
tions, should decide whether candidates for office were qualified or 
not. Then appointments must be made from the approved list. 
This bill at first was applied to a few positions, but has since been 
gradually extended to a large number. 

680. Cheap Postage. — The same year Congress gave to the country 
a, great boon by providing cheap postage. The cost of sending a 
letter to any point in the country was reduced from three to two 
cents. In 1885 the postage was made still cheaper by allowing an 
ounce to go for one two-cent stamp, in place of a half -ounce as before. 



352 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



C1883 



681. Standard Time. — In the time of our grandfathers every place 
had its own standard of time, based on the ''noon-mark." When 
the sun passed the meridian, that is, the north and south hne run- 
ning through the place, the clocks should say twelve o'clock noon. 
Hence the clocks at a place a short distance to the east would point 
to a few minutes after twelve, and to the west a few minutes before 
twelve. This variation in time between two places w^ould increase 

the farther apart, east and west, these 
towns were. When railroads became 
more numerous, this constant change of 
time was found to be a great inconven- 
ience. Therefore a plan was contrived 
by which the country was divided into 
hour sections, fifteen degrees of longi- 
tude making one hour of the sun's path. 
The longitude of Philadelphia is 75° 
from London. '' Eastern time " covers 
the country seven and a half degrees 
east and an equal distance west of this 
meridian. All clocks and watches in 
this section extending from eastern 
Maine to Buffalo would point to twelve 
o'clock at the same time. '' Central 
time" extends from Buffalo to the cen- 
tral part of Nebraska, the middle of 
this section being the 90th meridian, 
~ which runs through New Orleans. In 

all places in this region it will be eleven o'clock when it is 
twelve o'clock in the Eastern division. The next section running 
fifteen degrees westward from Nebraska, that is to Salt Lake 
City, has " Mountain time," and beyond that meridian to the 
coast is '* Pacific time." The lines between these sections are 
not strictly observed, being modified to suit local conditions ; 
but in travelling from Maine to Oregon it is now necessary to 
change one's watch but three times, setting the hands back one 
hour each time. 



James Abram Garfield, the twen- 
tieth President, was born in Ohio, 
November 19th, 1831. In 1856 he was 
made Professor of Latin and Greek in 
Hiram College, and in 1858 its presi- 
dent. He was elected a State senator 
at the early age of twenty-eight, in 
1859, b"'^ two years later resigned to 
enter the army as colonel. He was 
made major-general in 1863, and soon 
after entered the House of Represen- 
tatives. He remained here until 1880, 
when he was chosen United States 
Senator, and almost immediately Pres- 
ident. President Garfield died Sep- 
tember 19th, 1881, after weeks of strug- 
gle between life and death, and was 
succeeded by Vice-President Arthur. 

Chester Alan Arthur was born at 
Fairfield, Vermont, October 5th, 1830. 
He was, like President Garfield, a 
school-teacher, but became a lawyer in 
1853. Originally a Whig, he became 
a Republican in 1856, and was an 
ardent Unionist in 1861. He was a 
candidate for renomination in 1884, but 
was unsuccessful. He died November 
i8th, 1886. 



I884-I886] 



PROGRESS AND REFORM. 



353 



The Brooklyn Bridge. — The great 
steel bridge over the East River con- 
necting the city of New York with 
Brooklyn was completed in 1883. It 
was designed by a noted Prussian en- 
gineer, John A. Roebling. He was 
a graduate of the Royal Polytechnic 
School in Berlin, and came to this 
country before he was twenty-five years 
of age. He built many bridges, includ- 
ing the suspension bridge at Niagara, 
and in 1868, was chosen chief engineer 
for the construction of the Brooklyn 
Bridge. He completed his plans and 
begun the work, but died the next year. 
His son, Washington A. Roebling> 
finished the construction, which took 
fifteen years. It was the longest bridge 
in the world, its total length being more 
than a mile, and its central span about 
sixteen hundred feet. The cost of the 
bridge was about fifteen million dollars. 



682. The Election of 1884. — The Democrats adopted as their cam- 
paign cry in 1884 ** reduction of national expenditures," and placed 

Grover Cleveland of New York and 
Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana at the 
head of their ticket. In opposition, the 
Republican candidates were James G. 
Blaine Df Maine, and General John A. 
Logan of Illinois. The Prohibitionists 
and the Greenback party had tickets in 
the field, whose effect was to withdraw 
votes from the two leading candidates. 
Another defection from the Republican 
ranks took place, and the Independents, 
or '' Mugwumps," as they were called, 
carried enough votes to elect the Demo- 
cratic candidates, 219 to 182. New 
York, with its 36 votes, was the decid- 
ing factor. March 4th, 1885, Grover 
Cleveland became the first Demo- 
cratic President since 1861. 

683. Cleveland and the Civil Service. 
— The Constitution gives the ap- 
pointing power to the President, so 
that the value of the Civil Service 
Act depends upon the willingness 
of the President to abide by its 
spirit. President Cleveland favored 
Civil Service Reform, and, in spite 
of party pressure, kept in office 
many who naturally expected to lose 
their positions when a Democratic 
president came into power. 

684. Anarchists. — In 1886 there 
appeared a long list of strikes, which 
culminated in Chicago, when nearly 
fifty thousand persons abandoned their employments until their 




James Gillespie Blaine. 



354 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1886-1889 



James Gillespie Blaine, one of the 
best known of the later statesmen, was 
born in Pennsylvania, January 31st, 
1830. At the age of twenty-three he 
took charge of the " Kennebec Jour- 
nal," published at Augusta, Maine. 
He entered Congress in 1862, and for 
twenty years was a leader of the Re- 
publicans. For six years he held the 
position of Speaker of the House of 
Representatives. An unsuccessful can- 
didate for the Republican nomination 
to the Presidency in 1876, and again in 
1880, he became President Garfield's 
Secretary of State. In 1884 he re- 
ceived the nomination, but was de- 
feated by Mr. Cleveland. He declined 
to be a candidate in 1888, and became 
President Harrison's Secretary of State. 
He was an ardent believer in the policy 
of reciprocity. Mr. Blaine died Janu- 
ary 27th, 1893, 



demands were granted. In May, at a labor demonstration in that 
city, a bomb was thrown among a number of poHcemen, kilHng 

seven and wounding scores of others. 
This was the work of Anarchists, — 
men who desired the overthrow of all 
government. The workingmen in all 
parts of the country denounced the out- 
rage, and the authorities of Illinois tried 
and hanged four of the guilty men. 

685. Presidential Succession. — Presi- 
dent Garfield's death called attention to 
another danger, which never before had 
been so fully realized. If Vice-Presi- 
dent Arthur had been unable to serve, 
there would have been no person quali- 
fied to succeed to the duties of the 
President. In 1886 a Presidential Suc- 
cession Bill was passed, whereby, in case 
of the death or disability of both President and Vice-President, 
the duties of the office shall be performed by the Secretary of 
State, and, if necessary, then by the other members of the Cabinet 
in the order of their rank. If any member of the Cabinet is 
not qualified, his name is to be passed over and the next in order 
taken. This bill also provides that the new incumbent shall serve 
through the remainder of the four years, thereby making a new 
election out of the ordinary time unnecessary. 

The next year Congress passed the Edmunds Electoral Count 
Bill. This bill was intended to prevent another disputed election 
like that of 1876 (IF 670). 

In 1889, the President's Cabinet was enlarged by an act estab- 
lishing the Department of Agriculture, whose chief officer should 
be called Secretary of Agriculture. 

686. Interstate Commerce. — Another important law was enacted 
by Congress in 1887. The Interstate Commerce Act provided for 
a commission which should oversee all railroads which extend from 
one State to another. Congress had this right, as the Constitution 



l888] PROGRESS AND REFORM. 355 

placed the commerce between the States in the hands of the Fed- 
eral government. The purpose of this bill was to provide for uni- 
form passenger fares and freight charges. 

687. Chinese Exclusion Act. — In 1888 there were in this country 
more than one hundred thousand Chinamen, most of whom were in 
California. Their mode of living was so inexpensive that they could 
afford to work for lower wages than would support other laborers. 
It was claimed that men of other nationalities came here to make 
for themselves a permanent home, but that the Chinese do not in- 
tend to remain longer than to obtain a small amount of money 
which will be a fortune when they return to China. It was held 
that this cheap labor was a positive injury to the country. Hence 
by the Chinese Exclusion Act all Chinese laborers were forbidden to 
land on our shores, 

688. The Election of 1888. — The Presidential campaign of 1888 
turned on the question of the tariff. The people were called upon 
to decide between the Republicans, who 
desired a continuance of the principle 
of high protective duties, and the Demo- 
crats, who demanded a reduction of 
the tariff. President Cleveland was a 
candidate for re-election, and with him 
was associated Allen G. Thurman of 
Ohio. Mr. Blaine withdrew from the 
contest, and the Republicans nominated 
General Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, 
and Levi P. Morton of New York, who were elected by a vote of 
233 to 168 for the Democratic candidates. Several other minor 
parties were in the field, but their votes did not materially affect 
the result. New York again determined the election, as President 
Cleveland would have been re-elected if he had carried that State. 



The Statue of Liberty. — In 1886 
an immense statue, one hundred and 
fifty feet high, called " Liberty En- 
lightening the World," was completed 
and placed on its pedestal at Bedloe's" 
Island in New York Harbor. The 
statue was designed by Frederic Au- 
guste Bartholdi, a noted French sculp- 
tor, and was presented to the United 
States by the people of France to com- 
memorate the centennial of the Ameri- 
can republic. 



35^^ 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1889-1890 



CHAPTER LXXX. 



NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL QUESTIONS. 



689. Oklahoma. — The United States government purchased in 
1889 from the Indians of Indian Territory a fertile tract of over 

thirty-nine thousand square miles, 
known as Oklahoma. President 
1 1 rrison had proclaimed that any 
1 c who entered the new territory 
lore April 2 2d at noon should be 
1 l>arred from all land rights, and 
1 12 o'clock of that day thousands 
■e collected on the borders wait- 
ing for the signal that would open 
the territory to settlers. Before 
nightfall the best claims had been 
staked out and towns had been 
located. In five months Guthrie 
had a population of several thou- 
sand people, and in ten years the 
territory had three hundred thousand inhabitants. 

In the autumn of the same year four 
new states were admitted to the Union, 
North and South Dakota, Montana, and 
Washington. The next July, Idaho and 
Wyoming were also given the rights of 
statehood. 

690. Pan-American Congress. — In the 
winter of 1889-90 representatives from 
seventeen countries in South, Central, 
and North America met in Washino;ton 
at the invitation of the United States. 




Benjamin Harrison. 



Benjamin Harrison was born in 
Ohio, August 20th, 1833. Admitted to 
the bar of Indiana in 1854, Mr. Harri- 
son practised law until 1862, when he 
formed a regiment of volunteers and 
joined the army of the Union. He 
was made brigadier-general in 1865, 
and then returned to his profession. 
In 1880 General Harrison was chosen 
United States Senator, and became the 
Republican leader of Indiana. He 
was elected to the Presidency in 1888, 
but failed of a re-election in 1892. 
He died March 13th, 1901. 



The purpose of this Congress was to promote greater friendship 
between the different American nations and to plan for increased 



Dakota. — The great agricultural re- 
gions west of Minnesota were formed 
into the Territory of Dakota in 1861. 
This Territory belonged to the province 
of Louisiana, and until 1868 included 
what was then made into the Territory 
of Wyoming. Dakota was divided in 
1889, and the two States of North and 
South Dakota were admitted, with pop- 
ulations respectively of over three and 
more than four hundred thousand. 



1878-1887] NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL QUESTIONS. 357 

trade relations and improved commercial communication. The 
members of the Congress also recommended that thereafter all 
disputes between the various countries should be settled not by a 
resort to arms but by peaceful arbitration. 

691. Silver. — Both gold and silver have been used as money by 
the United States during most of its history. Since the discovery 
of silver in our western territory, its 
value, as compared with gold, has greatly 
declined. A law was passed, in 1873, 
that gold alone should be coined as 
money. An opposition to this '' demone- 
tization " of silver sprang up, especially 
in the Western and Southern States, 
and in 1878 an act was passed to re- 
sume the coinage of silver dollars, to 
the extent of at least $2,000,000 a month. For several years 
the issue was a live one between the ** hard money" men, who 
believed that gold should be the only standard of exchange, and 
those who desired also an equal "free coinage" of silver. The 
" Bland Silver Bill " of 1878 was followed by the " Sherman Silver 
Bill" of 1890, which made compulsory the buying by the United 
States of 4,500,000 ounces of silver monthly. This silver was to 
be coined to redeem notes issued by the government in payment for 
the bullion. 

692. The McKinley Tariff. — During the Civil War when the gov- 
ernment was expending enormous sums of money, very high duties 
were placed upon imports in order to provide an increased revenue. 
For nearly twenty-five years the tariff remained unchanged. Then 
it was found that the revenue was larger than was necessary and 
that a surplus was piling up in the treasury. In 1882 a tariff com- 
mission was appointed, which travelled throughout the country and 
inspected the working of the so-called "war duties." Nearly all of 
the Republican members of Congress were protectionists, as was 
also a strong wing of the Democratic party, and only slight reductions 
were made in the tariff. President Cleveland, in his annual message 
to Congress, December, 1887, recommended a radical reform in the 



358 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1888- I 889 



Montana, one of the youngest States, 
is the third largest in area. It was 
acquired from France as a portion of 
the Louisiana purchase. It was ex- 
plored by Lewis and Clark in 1804-5. 
It was organized as a Territory in 1864. 
The principal industries of Montana 
are mining and stock-raising. Its gain 
in population has been marked during 
the last twelve years. It has now 
nearly two hundred and fifty thousand 
inhabitants. 



tariff, with special reference to increasing the number of articles to 
be put upon the '' free list." His party had not the control of 

Congress, however, and the question of 
protection or tariff reform entered into 
the campaign of 1888. When the Re- 
publicans gained the supremacy, a new 
tariff measure was passed in 1890, 
which has been called the " McKinley 
Bill," from its maker, William McKin- 
ley, the chairman of the Ways and 
Means Committee of the House of Rep- 
resentatives. This reduced the revenue 
very considerably, though it increased the duties upon many articles. 

693. Reciprocity. — One of the new features of the tariff of 
1890 was that of '^ reciprocity." By this act the President was 
empowered to make treaties with those foreign nations that desired 
to accept the reciprocity 'dea. By these treaties the United States 
agreed to make certain reductions in the duties upon goods imported 
from those nations, on condition that they would make a similar re- 
duction from the duties levied upon our exports. 

694. Difficulties with Italy. — In 1890 the chief of police of New 
Orleans was killed by Italians in the street near his home. The 
murderers were captured and brought to trial, but were not con- 
victed. Immediately it was charged that the jury had either been 
bribed or intimidated by the Mafia, a 
powerful Italian society, and the citizens 
determined to punish the murderers 
themselves. A mob broke into the jail 
where the criminals were imprisoned 
and put them to death. The Italian 
government, claiming that several of 
these men were Italian citizens, de- 
manded reparation. Mr. Blaine, the 
Secretary of State, replied that the Fed- 
eral government had no power in the matter, and that the punish- 
ment of the leaders in the lynching belonged wholly to the State 



Washington is the most populous 
of the seven new States. The territo- 
rial government of Washington was 
established in 1853. For the first thirty 
years the growth was slow, but during 
the past twelve years it has been very 
rapid. The population is now more 
than five hundred thousand. Its loca- 
tion, climate, soil, and other natural 
advantages fit it for the successful 
prosecution of a large number of in- 
dustries. 



Idaho was originally a part of Ore- 
gon, and was made a separate Territory 
in 1863. TheStateisbutjustbeginning 
its development, but it has abundant 
resources for agricultural, grazing, and 
mining industries. Its population is 
over a hundred and fifty thousand. 



Wyoming has, next to Nevada, the 
smallest population of the forty-five 
States, but it had over four times as 
great a population in 1900 as in 1880. 
It now numbers a little less than one 
hundred thousand people. 



1889-189 1 ] NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL QUESTIONS. 359 

of Louisiana. The Italian minister demanded his papers, and a seri- 
ous international conflict seemed imminent. The dispute was finally 
compromised ; the United States dis- 
tributed twenty-five thousand dollars 
among the families of the murdered 
Italians, and diplomatic relations were 
resumed. 

695. Difficulties with Chile. — Shortly 
afterwards the United States and Chile 
had occasion to test the value of the work of the Pan-American 

Congress. During the progress of a 
revolution in Chile the people became 
enraged because the United States 
minister sided with the government 
in power and because of the capture 
by a United States vessel of a Chil- 
ean ship that was carrying munitions of war to the revolutionists. 
They attacked a party of United States marines who had landed 
from a man-of-war anchored in the harbor of Valparaiso, and killed 
two. Explanations were demanded, 
but the difficulty was at length 
peacefully adjusted. 

696. International Copyright. — In 
1 89 1 Congress passed an Inter- 
national Copyright Bill, which ex- 
tended the benefits of United States 
copyright to foreign authors, when- 
ever their countries allowed copy- 
right to American works. Before 
the passage of this bill any firm 
could publish in America editions of 
English or other foreign books with- 
out the consent of the authors. 
Occasionally payments were sent to 
the authors by the publishers, but there was no law that required 
this, 




Grover Cleveland. 



360 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1892 

697. Australian Ballot. — For some time there had been a growing 
demand for better methods of conducting elections. Several of the 
States had tried the Australian ballot, and so successful had been its 
use that before the election of 1892 thirty-seven States had adopted 
it. By this system complete secrecy of voting is made possible, and 
bribing and intimidation of voters is diminished. Since then nearly 
every other State in the Union has adopted this system, though with 
important differences. 

698. The Election of 1892. — As far as the leading parties were con- 
cerned, the campaign of 1892 was like that of 1888. President 
Harrison and Whitelaw Reid of New York were opposed by Ex- 
President Cleveland and Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois. A new 
party had been formed just before this election, called the ** People's 
Party," which nominated General Weaver as its candidate. The 
result of the campaign was strongly against the Republicans. Presi- 
dent Cleveland received 277 electoral votes to 145 for President 
Harrison, while the remaining 22 of the 444 electors voted for the 
People's Party candidate. The Democrats retained a large majority 
in the House of Representatives and gained the Senate. For the 
first time in more than thirty years, the Democratic party had com- 
plete control of the government. 

699. World's Columbian Exposition. — The four hundredth anniver- 
sary of the discovery of America by Columbus was fittingly cele- 
brated by a Naval Parade of all nations 
in New York Harbor, October 12th, 
1892, and by a World's Fair in Chicago, 
the grounds and buildings of which 
were dedicated October 21st, 1892. The 
fair was opened May ist, 1893, with an 
address by President Cleveland, and was 
continued six months. This exposition 
exceeded that of 1876 in the beauty 
of its buildings and grounds, in the ex- 

tensiveness of the exhibits, and in the multitude of its visitors. 
The more intimate knowledge of other peoples received by those 
who thronged to the fair was one of its most valuable features. 



Grover Cleveland, a native of New 
Jersey, was born March i8th, 1837. 
In 1881 he was elected Mayor of Buf- 
falo, New York. He was chosen by 
the Democratic party as their candidate 
for Governor in 1882, and was elected 
by an overwhelming majority. This 
fact, together with the political posi- 
tion of the " Empire State," made him 
the " logical candidate " for the Presi- 
dency. Elected in 1884, he was de- 
feated for re-election in 1888, but was 
again elected in 1892. 



1893-1894] NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL QUESTIONS. 36 1 

700. The Bering Sea Case. — After the United States purchased 
Alaska, Congress passed laws that limited the yearly catch of seals 
in Alaskan waters. These laws were evaded by other nationalities, 
and finally to protect the seals from extermination the United States, 
claiming that Bering Sea was an enclosed body of water and there- 
fore wholly under our jurisdiction, seized several Canadian vessels 
and confiscated their cargoes. A bitter dispute with Great Britain 
followed, which was referred to a board of arbitration. It gave deci- 
sion that the United States must remunerate the Canadian seamen 
and in the future could control Bering Sea only within the usual 
three-miles limit, but it also laid down certain regulations for the 
protection of the seals which were to be obeyed by Americans and 
Canadians alike. Thus, though the United States lost its case by 
the decision of the board of arbitration, it gained its real aim, — 
international preservation of the seals. 

701. Financial Depression. — In 1893 a severe business panic oc- 
curred. Factories could not sell their goods and business men could 
not borrow money. Many failures followed ; some factories reduced 
the wages of their employees, and others shut down work entirely. 
Thousands of workmen were thrown out of employment, and their 
families suffered many hardships. Naturally there was much unrest 
and dissatisfaction among the working people. Strikes occurred in 
different parts of the country which caused needless waste of prop- 
erty and greater distress. Many people thought that the Sherman 
Silver Purchase Act was the cause of this financial depression, and 
President Cleveland called a special session of Congress to repeal 
this law. 

702. The Pullman Boycott. — A strike among the employees of the 
Pullman Palace Car Company led to a boycott of the parlor cars by 
the American Railway Union, in June, 1894. Twenty railroads were 
"tied up," and perhaps forty thousand employees left work. The 
strike extended from Ohio to California. Riots ensued, several of 
which were quelled only by the employment of the United States 
troops as well as the militia to assist the local police. The strike 
was unsuccessful ; the leaders were arrested for obstructing the 
United States mail, and sentenced to fine and imprisonment. Presi- 



362 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1895-1896 

dent Cleveland appointed a special committee to investigate the 
strike, which committee recommended a permanent United States 
strike commission. 

703. Venezuela. — December 17th, 1895, President Cleveland sent 
a message to Congress, calling attention to the dispute over the 
boundary line between Venezuela and British Guiana, and re-affirm- 
ing the Monroe doctrine (IF 449). In accordance with a law passed 
by Congress, a commission was appointed to look into the matter 
and to ascertain the true boundary line. As a result, partly, of the 
investigations of this commission, Great Britain and the United 
States, in November, 1896, signed an agreement, submitting nearly 
all the disputed points to a tribunal, to consist of five jurists, two 
to be appointed by the United States, two by Great Britain, and 
the fifth to be selected by the four. Venezuela accepted the pro- 
posed terms, and thus an international difficulty, which seemed 

to threaten war between two great na- 
tions, was quietly settled by arbitration. 
704. Utah. — The territory of Utah 
had long been asking to be admitted 
into the Union as a State, but Congress 
was not satisfied with the way the pec 



Utah, a portion of the Mexican pur- 
chase of 1848, was made a Territory by 
the Compromise of 1850. It had been 
settled by the Mormons as early as 
1847. The chief industries are mining 
and agriculture. The population is 
over a quarter of a million. 



pie had fulfilled the requirements of the Anti-Polygamy law. After 
the Mormon Church announced that it had abandoned polygamy, a 
bill was introduced admitting Utah into the Union. It became the 
forty-fifth State in 1896. 

705. The Gold Reserve. — By the bank act of July 1 2th, 1 882, it was 
provided that, if the gold coin and bullion in the Treasury reserved 
for the redemption of greenbacks should fall below one hundred 
million dollars, gold certificates should no longer be issued. During 
the years 1894 to 1896, there was a constant drain upon the Treas- 
ury of the United States. This diminished the quantity of gold on 
hand to such an extent that it was reduced below the required 
amount on four separate occasions during that period. It became 
necessary for the government to borrow gold, which was done in the 
usual manner, by issuing bonds. On the fourth occasion, the bond 
issue was thrown open to popular bids, The amount a^ked for was 



1896] NATIONAL And International questions. 363 

one hundred million dollars, and nearly six times that amount was 
offered by the people, on the appointed day in February, 1896. This 
was a strong indication of the remarkable prosperity of the United 
States, as well as a proof of the confidence of the people in the 
stability of the government. 

706. The Election of 1896. — In 1 896, the currency question ex- 
ceeded in importance the tariff issue. The Republican party 
nominated William McKinley of Ohio (H 692), and Garrett A. Ho- 
bart of New Jersey, on a platform advocating protection and inter- 
national bimetalHsm. The Democrats declared for ^nhe free and 
unlimited coinage of silver " (H 691), and chose as standard-bearers 
William J. Bryan of Nebraska, and Arthur Sewall of Maine. The 
" Silver Republicans " ratified the Democratic ticket, and the Popu- 
lists nominated Mr. Bryan, associating with him Thomas E. Watson 
of Georgia. A wing of the Democratic party opposed free silver, 
and nominated General John M. Palmer of Illinois, and General 
Simon B. Buckner of Kentucky. The election occurred November 
3d, 1896, and resulted in the choice of 271 electors for McKinley and 
176 for Bryan. 



364 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1865-1885 



CHRONOLOGY. 



1865. Review of the armies, May 23, 24. 
Thirteenth Amendment ratified, December 18. 

1866. Tennessee readmitted, 
Atlantic cable finished, July 27. 
Invasion of Canada. 

1867. Tenure of Office Act, March 4. 
Purchase of Alaska, March 30. 

1868. Impeachment of the President, February to May. 
Six States readmitted. 

Fourteenth Amendment ratified, July 28. 

1869. President Grant inaugurated, March 4. 
Pacific Railroad completed, May 10. 

1870. Reconstruction completed, March 30. 
Fifteenth Amendment ratified, March 30. 

1871. Treaty of Washington, May 8. 
Burning of Chicago, October 8, 9. 
Ku Klux disorders. 

1872. Geneva awards, September. 
Burning of Boston, November 9. 
Modoc War. 

1873. Beginning of the panic. 

1876. Centennial celebration. May to November. 
Sioux War. 

1877. Electoral Commission, February. 
President Hayes inaugurated, March 5. 
Railroad strikes. 

Invention of the telephone. 

1878. Yellow fever epidemic. 
" Bland Silver Bill." 

1879. Resumption of specie payments, January i. 
Formation of the Knights of Labor. 

1881. President Garfield inaugurated, March 4. 
Death of President Garfield, Septemlier 19. 

1882. Mississippi floods. 
Anti-Polygamy Act. 

Tariff commission appointed. 

1883. New Tariff Act. 

" Pendleton Civil Service Reform Bill." 
Cheaper Postage Act. 
1885. President Cleveland inaugurated, March 4. 
Contract Labor Act. 



I886-I896] 



CHRONOLOGY. 



365 



1886. Anarchist riot at Chicago, May. 
Charleston earthquake. 
Presidential Succession Act. 

1887. Interstate Commerce Act. 
Presidential Election Act. 
President's tariff message, December. 

1888. Chinese Immigration Act.,^ 

1889. President Harrison inaugurated, March 4. 
Johnstown flood. May 31. 

Territory of Oklahoma formed. 

1890. New Tariff Act. 
"Sherman Silver Bill." 

1892. Naval parade, October 12. 

1893. President Cleveland inaugurated, March 4. 
World's Columbian Exhibition, May to November. 
Repeal of the " Sherman Silver Bill." 
Republic of Hawaii, January 16. 

1894. Pullman boycott, June. 
New Tariff Act, August 27. 

1895. Venezuela message, December 17. 

1896. Issue of Gold Reserve Bonds, February. 
National Civil Service Reform completed. May 6. 



•BlacfilJoarD analtJSfjs. 



Presidents 



McKlNLEY 1 897-1901 

Roosevelt . . . . . . 1901- 



Matters of Importance 



Spanish War. 

Annexation of Hawaii. 

Colonies. 

International Arbitration. 

Insurrection in China. 

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. 



366 



SECTION XIII. 

NATIONAL EXPANSION. 1896. 



CHAPTER LXXXI. 

THE WAR WITH SPAIN. 

707. The Dingley Bill. — In 1 894, after the Democratic party had 
obtained a majority in both branches of Congress, a new tariff 
schedule was adopted without the signa- 
ture of President Cleveland. This was 
known as the "Wilson Tariff Bill," and 
it was satisfactory neither to the tariff 
reformers nor to the protectionists. The 
Federal finances were not in a good con- 
dition at the beginning of President 
McKinley's administration. The total 
resources of the government had seri- 
ously fallen off while the expenses had 
increased. The Republicans in Con- 
gress determined to increase the reve- 
nue by means of a new tariff bill to 
supersede the Wilson Bill. This new 
tariff schedule was planned by Nelson Dingley, a representative 
from Maine, and increased considerably the revenue of the govern- 
ment. The bill itself aimed '* to provide revenue for the government 
and to encourage our industries." It went into effect in 1897. 

708. Spain in America. — At one time Spain was the richest and 
the most powerful country in Europe. Not only did she possess the 

367 




William McKinley. 



368 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1492-1895 



whole of the Spanish penmsula but her kings ruled over a large part 
of the Continent. Her navy was the strongest on the seas, and her 
armies were sent out to explore the new lands that the discoveries 
of Columbus had opened up to colonization. Nearly all of South 
America, the whole of Central America, the West Indies, a large 

part of the present United States, and 
even islands in the Pacific came under 
her control. Spain from the very be- 
ginning of her colonization was more 
anxious to become rich than to care for 
the welfare of her people either at home 
or abroad. Governmental affairs were 
neglected, and all her energies were 
directed towards obtaining gold from 
America. Her influence in Europe be- 
gan to decline until her control of terri- 
tory in the Old World was confined to 
only the larger portion of the Spanish 
peninsula. One by one her colonies 
either revolted and won their independ- 
ence or were sold, until by the end of 
the first quarter of the nineteenth cen- 
tury only Cuba and Porto Rico were left 
to Spain in the New World, and the Philippines and a few other 
small islands in the Pacific. 

709. Conditions in Cuba. — The government of Cuba was about as 
bad as it could be. Spanish officials paid almost no attention to the 
welfare of the island but treated the people with contempt, heavily 
taxed them, and oppressed them. Revolutions were frequent, were 
put down with great severity, and were followed by greater oppres- 
sion. When an insurrection broke out in 1895, Spain sent over a 
large army under Marshal Campos. The insurgents kept to the 
mountains, where they set up a government of their own and declared 
their independence. Campos's campaign was a failure. He was 
recalled and succeeded by Captain-General Weyler, whose course from 
the first was brutal and barbarous. He inaugurated a policy of 



William McKinley was born in 
Niles, Ohio, January 29th, 1843. 
When the war broke out he enlisted 
as a private in the 23d Ohio Regiment. 
He was made an ofificer for gallantry 
in battle, and was regularly promoted 
until at the close of the war he was 
acting as assistant adjutant-general. 
After being mustered out he studied 
law, was admitted to the bar, served 
in the State Legislature, and later was 
elected to Congress, where he became 
noted for his thoroughness and effi- 
ciency. As chairman of the Ways 
and Means Committee he arranged 
the McKinley Tariff Bill, which 
brought him into national prominence. 
He was twice Governor of Ohio, in 
1896 was elected President, served four 
years, and was re-elected by a large 
majority in 1900. The next year he 
attended the Pan-American Exposi- 
tion and at a public reception was 
shot by a Polish anarchist. He died 
at Buffalo, September 14th, 1901. 



1848-1896] THE WAR WIIH SPAIN. 369 

extermination, and women and children, the aged and the wounded, 
were massacred v/ith merciless cruelty. In order to starve out the 
insurgent forces, the farming population of large areas of territory 
were driven from their homes and their industries, and were concen- 
trated in the cities under military guard. The situation of these 
people, who were called '' reconcentrados," became desperate. Tens 
of thousands of them died of starvation and disease. Weyler's sys- 
tem of savage barbarity stirred the hearts of the people of our coun- 
try, until the general feeling throughout the United States was 
manifested by one united cry of intense indignation. 

710. Cuba and the United States. — The United States had long 
sympathized with Cuba, and had made several attempts to better the 
conditions there. As early as President Polk's administration a 
hundred million dollars were offered for the island, and four years 
later the United States ministers to Great Britain, France, and Spain 
met at Ostend to discuss the Cuban question. The result of this 
conference was the " Ostend Manifesto," which declared that if Spain 
refused to sell, the United States had the right to take the island by 
force. At this period Cuba was greatly desired by the people of the 
South, as its annexation would increase the slave territory, and the 
vigilance of the North prevented further action at this time. In 
1858 another offer, of thirty million dollars, was made, but it was with- 
drawn. During the progress of the revolution of 1868, the United 
States attempted to induce Spain to recognize the independence of 
Cuba, but was unsuccessful. Spain was greatly irritated by the posi- 
tion of our government, and captured several American vessels sus- 
pected of carrying aid to the insurgents and put to death a number of 
American citizens. 

711. United States Interference. — Early in 1896 Congress adopted 
resolutions favoring the recognition of the Cuban insurgents as 
belligerents, and recommended that their independence should be 
sought through friendly offices with Spain. Soon after this, how- 
ever, President Cleveland issued a proclamation of neutrality, but 
later the cruelty of Weyler led him, in his message to Congress in 
December, to state that the patience of this country might be ex- 
hausted unless a termination of the barbarous conditions was speedily 



370 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1897-1898 



reached. The next year President McKinley issued a similar warn- 
ing, and through our consuls carefully investigated affairs in the 
island. Such an appalling state of suffering was discovered that 
Congress appropriated fifty thousand dollars to relieve American 
citizens in Cuba. The President also called for popular subscrip- 
tions, and large supplies were shipped to the island and were distribu- 
ted to the starving reconcentrados by the Red Cross Society. 

712. Destruction of the " Maine." — A new Spanish cabinet, attempt- 
ing to institute reforms in Cuba, recalled General Weyler and set up 




The U. S. Battleship " Maine." 

an autonomist government. The insurgents had little faith, how- 
ever, in Spain's sincerity, and refused to accept anything but abso- 
lute independence. About this time our battleship '' Maine," after 
due notification that it was coming, made a friendly visit to the 
harbor of Havana. On the night of the 15th of February, 1898, 
the " Maine " was blown up, and two hundred and sixty-four seamen 
and two officers were killed and many more seriously injured. In- 
dignation in America was intense, but it restrained itself until an 
official report showed that the explosion was caused by a mine under 
the vessel. Congress then voted unanimously an appropriation of 
fifty million dollars, to be placed in the hands of the President to be 



1898] 



THE WAR WITH SPAIN. 



371 



used at his discretion, and the army and the navy departments made 
hurried preparations to have everything ready for the war which 
seemed inevitable. 

713. The Independence of Cuba Recog^nized. — President McKinley 
used every method in his power to delay or prevent the war, but in 
April he sent a message to Congress, stating that " the only hope of 
relief from a condition which can no longer be endured is the en- 
forced pacification of Cuba. In the name of humanity, in the name 
of civilization, in behalf of endangered American interests which 
give us the right and the duty to speak and to act, the war in Cuba 
must stop." He asked that he might be empowered to use the 
army and the navy as might be necessary '' to secure in the island 
the establishment of a stable government." Congress at once au- 
thorized him to use the forces of the United States, and on April 
19th passed a resolution ''that the people of the island of Cuba are, 
and of right ought to be, free and independent," and ''that it is 
the duty of the United States to de- 
mand . . . that the government of Spain 
at once relinquish its authority and 
government in the island." 

714. War Declared. — Our American 
minister to Madrid was General Wood- 
ford. The Spanish government at once 
gave him his passports, with the state- 
ment that Spain regarded the course of 
the American Congress as equivalent to 
a declaration of war. 

The United States then declared war 
against Spain, and sent a fleet to block- 
ade Havana and other ports of Cuba. 
This was done on the 2 2d of April, and 
the next day the President issued a call to the States for 125,000 
volunteers. Congress had already greatly increased our regular 
army, and it further provided for raising several national volun- 
teer regiments. Another call for State troops was issued, and in a 
few weeks an army numbering nearly 300,000 men had been raised, 




George Dewey. 



372 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1898 



and Congress had provided ample means for carrying on the war 
with vigor and despatch. 

715. The Battle of Manila. — As soon as war was declared, Secre- 
tary Long telegraphed an order to Commodore George Dewey, who 
was in command of the Asiatic fleet, then stationed at Hong Kong, 
to proceed to the Philippine Islands and '' capture or destroy the 
Spanish fleet." Dewey arrived off Manila Bay early Sunday morn- 
ing, May 1st, ran past the fortifications at the entrance, and reached 
the inner harbor about daybreak. The Spaniards were completely 
surprised, and before one o'clock their entire fleet of eleven vessels 
had been destroyed and the fort at Cavite had been captured. Not 
one of Commodore Dewey's ships had been seriously injured, and 
not a man had been killed and only six had been wounded, while 
the Spaniards had 400 killed and 600 wounded. For this remark- 
able victory Dewey received the thanks of Congress, and was pro- 
moted to the rank of a rear-admiral. 

716. Admiral Cervera's Fleet. — When the war began, Spain had a 
fleet of six swift vessels under Admiral Cervera somewhere in the 
Atlantic Ocean. All the large cities along the coast were in great 

fear that this fleet would 
suddenly appear off their 
harbors and destroy them. 
Finally the excitement was 
quieted by the report that 
Cervera's ships had been 
seen near the southern coast 
of Cuba, and had anchored 
in the inner harbor of Santi- 
ago de Cuba. Here it was 
blockaded by the North At- 
lantic squadron, under the 
command of acting Rear- 
Admiral Sampson and Com- 
modore Schley. 

717. Lieutenant Hobson and the " Merrimac." — - The entrance to 
the harbor of Santiago is by a narrow, winding passage between well- 




Richmond p. Hobson. 



iSgS] THE WAR WITH SPAIN. 373 

fortified hills. Early in the morning of June 3d, Naval Constructor 
Richmond P. Hobson and a crew of seven men took the collier 
"Merrimac" into this passage. They intended to sink it so that it 
would lie across the channel and completely pen in the Spanish fleet, 
but a shot from the fortifications carried away the rudder, and they 
were only partly successful. The little band miraculously escaped 
destruction, and were made prisoners of war by the Spanish admiral 
himself, who, in recognition of their heroism, announced their safety 
under a flag of truce to Admiral Sampson. 

718. The Destruction of the Spanish Fleet. — Sunday morning, July 
3d, Admiral Cervera, having received positive orders from Spain to 
set out to sea, attempted to escape from Santiago. He hoped to 




Winning the Cresi of San Juan Hill. 

outsail Admiral Sampson's ships, but was overtaken, and in an en- 
gagement as extraordinary as the battle of Manila lost all the vessels 
of his fleet. Every member of the Spanish crews was either killed 
or captured, while the Americans lost but one man killed and three 
wounded. 

719. Closing Campaigns of the War. — Meanwhile, General Shafter 
with 16,000 soldiers had landed at Baiquiri, a few miles to the east 
of Santiago. In spite of prodigious obstacles and unforeseen hard- 



374 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1898 

ships, due to the natural difficulties of the country and to the tropi- 
cal climate, the Americans pressed forward and, by a series of 
desperate fights, culminating in the battle of El Caney and the 
heroic charge up San Juan Hill, captured the Spanish outposts and 
held the city in siege. After the destruction of Cervera's fleet the 
city could no longer resist, and surrender was made July 17th. 

Immediately an expedition under General Miles to Porto Rico was 
undertaken. Landing on the south coast, the American soldiers 
were received with cordial welcome by the people. Ponce and 
several other towns surrendered with little or no fighting, and the 
Spanish troops fell back towards the stronghold of San Juan. Prepa- 
rations were being made for the capture of this place when news 
reached the island that negotiations of peace had already begun. 

720. The Protocol of Peace. — On August 12th, the French Am- 
bassador, Jules Cambon, acting for Spain, and William R. Day, 
Secretary of State of the United States, signed a protocol of peace, 
and orders were given to cease hostilities. By the terms of the 
protocol, Spain relinquished all claim of sovereignty over and title 
to Cuba, ceded Porto Rico to the United States, and referred the 
future of the Philippine Islands to a commission which should draw 
up a definite treaty of peace. 

721. The Surrender of Manila. — After Admiral Dewey had de- 
stroyed the Spanish fleet in the harbor of Manila, he made no 
attempt to capture the city, since he had no troops to hold it. The 
government immediately began preparations to transport an army 
across the Pacific to the Philippines. It was no small undertaking to 
obtain sufficient ships suitable to carry thousands of soldiers on a three- 
weeks' voyage, and it was August before the army and the navy 
were ready to make a combined attack upon the city. Manila sur- 
rendered the day after the signing of the protocol, to Admiral Dewey 
and General Merritt. Congress again showed its gratitude; it re- 
established the rank of admiral, thereby permitting President 
McKinley to raise Rear-Admiral Dewey to the position hitherto 
filled only by Admirals Farragut and Porter. 

722. Hawaii. — The Hawaiian Islands, or, as they were formerly 
called, the " Sandwich Islands," were discovered by Captain James 



I778-I899] 



THE WAR WITH SPAIN. 



375 



Cook, an English navigator, in 1778. In 1820 American mission- 
aries went there, and the power and influence of the Americans in 
the islands constantly increased. The government was a monarchy 
till 1893, when a revolution took place; the queen was deposed; a 
republican government was inaugurated, 
and Sanford B. Dole, the son of a mis- 
sionary, was elected president. Efforts 
were made at different times to annex 
these islands to the United States, and 
finally, in July, 1898, by a joint resolu- 
tion of Congress, this annexation was 
accomplished. A regular territorial 
government has been organized, and the 
Territory of Hawaii now has a delegate 
upon the floor of our House of Repre- 
sentatives. 

723. The Treaty of Peace. — Five com- 
missioners, appointed by the President, 
met five others who represented Spain, 
at Paris, October ist, 1898. Two 
months later a treaty was concluded 
which ratified the protocol in every point 
and further provided that the Philippine 
Islands be ceded to the United States 
and that the United States should pay 
to Spain the sum of $20,000,000. The 
proposed treaty was brought before the Senate of the United States, 
and, after full discussion, was ratified February 6th, 1899. March 
17th the Queen Regent of Spain also signed the treaty, and peace 
between the two nations was officially declared. 

724. The Philippine Insurrection. — At the time of our war with 
Spain the Philippine Islands were in a state of insurrection. When 
the United States took possession this revolt continued, and a warlike 
condition of affairs has existed for about four years. The rebellion 
has been limited mostly to the island of Luzon. Its leader and 
military commander was General Aguinaldo, who was captured in 



Porto Rico is a valuable accession 
to the territory belonging to the United 
States. It is an island in the West 
Indies, something over one hundred 
miles long from east to west, and about 
forty miles broad from north to south. 
Its area is a little less than four thou- 
sand square miles, or nearly half as 
large as the State of Massachusetts. It 
has nearly a million population. The 
soil is very fertile. The production 
of sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, and 
Indian corn is large, and among fruits, 
bananas and pineapples are raised in 
abundance. The principal city is San 
Juan, which is situated on the northern 
coast, and has an excellent harbor. Its 
population is between thirty and forty 
thousand. 

A civil government was inaugurated 
for Porto Rico by act of Congress, in 
1900, which provides for a governor, a 
secretary, auditor, and commissioner of 
education, — all appointed by the Presi- 
dent. These officers, with five others, 
natives of Porto Rico, constitute an 
Executive Council, and form one 
branch of the legislative assembly. The 
other branch of the Legislature is called 
the " House of Delegates," and is com- 
posed of thirty-five members elected by 
the people of the island. 



n^ 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[1889-1902 



The Philippine Islands. — These 

islands, more than fifteen hundred in 
number, form a large archipelago lying 
east of the China Sea and between Ja- 
pan and Australia. The largest island 
is Luzon, in the northern section of the 
group, and the largest city is Manila. 
Luzon is about as large as Virginia or 
Ohio, and the population of Manila is 
nearly as large as that of the city of 
Washington. The entire group of is- 
lands has an area of more than one 
hundred thousand square miles, or 
about half as large as France or Spain. 
The population of all the islands is es- 
timated at about eight million. These 
people are mostly of the Malay type, 
but they represent a great variety of 
races. 



1 90 1 and took the oath of allegiance to the United States. The 
insurrection has gradually diminished, and most of the leaders have 
surrendered, until now (1902) there exists only a sort of guerrilla 
warfare, which is confined to a small area of territory. The in- 
dustries in these islands have gradually 
revived, and the condition of the natives 
is improving. Schools have been exten- 
sively established by the government, 
and other reforms have been inaugu- 
rated. On the 4th of July, 1901, a 
civil government superseded military 
rule, with Hon. William H. Taft as 
Governor. Four departments of this 
government were organized : the De- 
partment of the Interior, of Commerce 
and Police, of Justice and Finance, and 
of Public Instruction. 

725. Samoa. — By the Treaty of Ber- 
lin in 1889, England, Germany, and the United States agreed to 
preserve peace and protect property in the Samoan Islands. This 
arrangement proved to be far from satisfactory, and was the cause 
of much friction. Finally a dispute arose over the succession to the 
throne, and the representatives of Germany took sides with one of 
the two rival claimants, and those of Great Britain and the United 
States with the other. Considerable fighting followed, and a joint 
commission was appointed to investigate affairs and report upon the 
best methods for preventing future diffi- 
culties. The commission reported that 
the best system to " assure permanent 
prosperity and tranquillity is a govern- 
ment by one power." Consequently it 
was agreed that Great Britain should 
withdraw ; that the United States should 
have Tutuila and a few smaller islands, and that Germany should 
take the remainder of the group. The treaty was ratified by the 
Senate, January 17, 1900, and we came into possession of land in 



Guam is the largest of the Ladrone 
Islands. It is thirty miles long and 
from three to ten miles wide. It has 
a population of about ten thousand. 
Its products are chiefly rice, sugar, 
cocoa, and indigo. It has a small har- 
bor, and will be valuable to the United 
States as a coaling station. 



iSgg-igoo] 



THE WAR WITH SPAIN. 



377 



another section of the Pacific Ocean. Tutuila, which has long 
been a coaling station for our vessels, is a valuable addition to 
the territory of the United States, for it contains the well-sheltered 
and easily accessible port of Pago-Pago, which is probably the finest 
harbor in the South Pacific Ocean. 

726. The Hague Treaty. — In May, 1899, delegates from twenty- 
six different nations, responding to the suggestion of Nicholas II., 
Czar of Russia, met at the Hague to discuss the possibility of 
international disarmament. As a result of the conference, a 
court of arbitration was formed to which perplexing disputes that 
might be the cause of war between nations can be referred. 
The United States, in May, 1900, ratified the Hague Peace 
Conference Treaty, and later President McKinley appointed Ex- 
President Harrison, Chief Justice Fuller, Attorney-General Griggs, 
and Judge George Gray of the United States Circuit Court to be 
the American members of the 
Permanent International Court 
of Arbitration. 

727. The Chinese Insurrection. — 
In the spring of 1900, a serious 
insurrection broke out in China 
against foreigners and foreign in- 
fluence, and many Americans and 
Europeans were killed. Troops 
from America and Europe were 
hurried to China to protect the 
interests of their citizens, and for 
several weeks an international 
army occupied Pekin, the capital 
of the Chinese P^mpire. In set- 
tling the difficulty, the policy of 
the United States prevailed over 
the harsher demands of the European powers. China must pay a 
suitable indemnity for property destroyed and lives lost, and must 
punish the instigators of the insurrection, but her territory was to 
remain intact. Previously the United States had reached an im- 




John Hay. 



378 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



[igoo-igoi 



portant understanding with those nations who had obtained territory 
in China, that all ports should be opened to the trade of all nations. 
This arrangement, called the **open door," was a brilliant diplomatic 
achievement on the part of John Hay, our Secretary of State. 

728. The Election of 1900. — In this campaign, free coinage of 
silver and " anti- imperialism " were the most important questions. 
The anti-imperialists, opposed to the retention of the Philippine 
Islands, joined the Democrats and Populists in supporting William 
J. Bryan and Adlai E. Stevenson. William McKinley and Theo- 
dore Roosevelt, the Republican nominees, received two hundred 
and ninety-two electoral votes and Colonel Bryan one hundred 
and fifty-five. The election was one of the most decisive in our 
history. 

729. The Pan-American Exposition. — May 20th, 1901, the Pan- 
American Exposition at Buffalo was formally opened. This Exposi- 
tion, designed to bring more closely together the different nations of 
"the three Americas," and represent their progress in manufactures, 
art, and civilization, was one of the most successful of the many ex- 
positions held in America in 
the last twenty-five years. 

730. The Assassination of 
President McKinley. — The 
President attended the Pan- 
American Exposition in Sep- 
tember, where he made a 
great speech, in which he 
showed that the United 
States desired more liberal 
trade relations with other 
countries and wished for 
peace between all nations of 
the earth. The next day, 
at a public reception, he 
was shot by an anarchist 
and died a week later, sincerely mourned by the entire nation. The 
day of the funeral was everywhere observed as a day of mourning. 




COPYRIGHT, 1898, BY B. 

Theodore Roosevelt. 



I850-I90I] 



THE WAR WITH SPAIN. 



379 



Services were held in almost every village of the United States and 
in nearly all the large cities of the world. 

731. President Roosevelt. — On the death of President McKinley, 
the Vice-President, Theodore Roosevelt, was quietly sworn into 
office. He pledged himself '' to con- 
tinue absolutely unbroken the policy of 
President McKinley, for the peace, pros- 
perity, and honor of the country," and 
invited each member of the late Pres- 
ident's cabinet to remain. Thus he 
immediately won the confidence of the 
people, and no financial disturbance fol- 
lowed his sudden accession to office. 

732. The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. — 
Ever since the discovery of America 
there has been a strong desire to reach 
the Pacific Ocean by some other route 
than that around Cape Horn or the 
Cape of Good Hope. For many years 
the United States has discussed the 
advisability of making a canal across the isthmus at Panama or 
through Nicaragua. Such a canal has in late years become a neces- 
sity, not only because of increasing trade with Asiatic countries, but 
also as a quicker means of passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific 
in time of war. A convention, called the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 
made with Great Britain in 1850, stood in the way of the construc- 
tion of a canal, and was superseded December i6th, 1901, by the 
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. This treaty provides that the United States 
shall control the canal, but that it is to be open to '' vessels of com- 
merce and of war of all nations on terms of entire equality." The 
advantages of the two routes are being carefully considered by the 
government, and the position of the canal will probably be deter- 
mined at no distant day. Nicaragua and Colombia are willing to 
grant valuable concessions in order to have the canal pass through 
their territories. Treaties have been negotiated with Nicaragua 
which will turn over to the United States a strip of land along the 



Theodore Roosevelt, born in New 
York, October 27, 1858,15 descended 
from an old Dutch colonial family. 
Since his graduation from Harvard he 
has spent most of his life in politics. 
He has served as a member of the New 
York Legislature, has been United 
States civil service commissioner, pres- 
ident of the New York City Police 
Board, Assistant Secretary of the 
Navy, and governor of New York. 
When the war with Spain broke out he 
resigned his position in the Navy De- 
partment and, with General Wood, 
formed the famous regiment of Rough 
Riders which did such valiant work at 
Santiago de Cuba. In 1900 he was 
elected Vice-President, and succeeded 
to the Presidency upon the death of 
President McKinley. President Roose- 
velt is an author of distinction, and has 
written several valuable books, mostly 
on historical subjects. 



380 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1865-1902 

proposed route, and Colombia has sent to Secretary Hay a protocol 
which defines the rights that will be granted if the canal is cut 
across the Isthmus. 

733. The Danish West Indies. — Denmark has long been anxious 
to sell to America the three islands of St. Thomas, St. John, and 
St. Croix in the West Indies. During President Johnson's admin- 
istration, negotiations were entered into to purchase these islands, 
but the matter was given up. Early in 1902 a treaty was made by 
which the islands were ceded to the United States on the payment 
to Denmark of five million dollars. This treaty has been ratified 
by the Senate, but will not go into effect until it has been confirmed 
by the Danish Parliament. The Danish West Indies are valuable 
as naval stations, as they control the waterway that leads to the 
future canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. 

734. Cuba. — When Congress declared the independence of Cuba, 
one clause of the resolutions read as follows : '' The United States 
hereby disclaims any disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty, 
jurisdiction, or control over said island, except for the pacification 
thereof, and asserts its determination when that is accomplished to 
leave the government and control of the island to its people." When 
the war closed, Cuba had no constitution, no government, no re- 
sources, and the United States for a time kept military control of 
the island. Meanwhile American officials endeavored to improve 
the existing conditions which were the result of the Spanish misrule 
of four centuries and the frequent revolutions of the Cubans. Ha- 
vana and other cities were cleaned until they were no longer the 
breeding places of yellow fever ; schools were established, and agri- 
cultural pursuits were encouraged. Later a civil government, with 
General Leonard Wood as Governor, superseded the military rule, 
and under its directions the Cubans gradually took upon themselves 
the management of the government. A constitution was adopted 
and officials were elected, and on the 20th of May, 1902, the island 
was turned over to the Cubans, with Tomas Estrada Palma as the 
first President. 

735. International Courtesies. — In February, 1902, Prince Henry 
of Prussia visited the United States. He made a tour of the country 



LETTERS AND ART. 



381 



as far west as St. Louis, and everywhere received a cordial welcome 
from the people. To commemorate this visit, Emperor William is to 
give to the United States a bronze statue of Frederick the Great^ 
who was friendly to the colonies during the Revolution. A statue 
of Count Rochambeau, who was in command of the French troops 
sent to assist the colonial armies, was unveiled at Washington in May. 
This monument was a gift of the French Government, and the cere- 
mony was attended by a number of prominent Frenchmen. Early 
in the same month terrific volcanic eruptions in Martinique and St. 
Vincent, islands in the West Indies belonging to France and Great 
Britain, destroyed the city and inhabitants of St. Pierre, and devas- 
tated the larger part of thqse islands. Popular subscriptions were 
immediately started in the United States; Congress voted a sum of 
money for the relief of the survivors, and war vessels loaded with 
supplies were dispatched to the scene of the disaster. 



CHAPTER LXXXII. 

LETTERS AND ART. 

736. Colonial Period. — The colonial period was marked by the 
publication ot but few books, and these were chiefly of a theological 

character. This was a new coun- 
try, and the people were too 
busy to find time for readin^r, 




much less for writing 



Conse- 



quently the ministers were almost 
the only persons who had time 
or inclination for such matters, 
and they naturally wrote upon 
the subjects which interested 
them most. 

737. The Revolution. — The Re- 
volution, with its excitement and 
radical changes, produced a re- 
markable group of orators and 
statesmen, who have left a most 
valuable collection of letters and 
writings. The state jjapers of Washington, Adams, Jefferson, 



Washington Irving. 



382 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 




James Fenimore Cooper. 



Hamilton, Madison, and others probably cannot be surpassed in 

any country. 

738. Birth of Literature. — It was not until these stirring times 

had passed, when affairs had be- 
come in a sense settled, and the 

United States had lost to a great 

extent its provincial character, 

and had taken upon itself a 

higher degree of civilization, that 

the country had the opportunity 

to turn its attention to real lit- 
erary pursuits. Then a period 

of great intellectual development 

followed, bringing forward poets, 

novelists, essayists, and scientists, 

whose works have been widely 

read in all parts of the world. 
739. Washington Irving. — The 

pioneer of American literature, 

or, as some one has said, the first ambassador whom the New World 

of Letters sent to the Old, was 
born in New York, in 1783. 
Washington Irving's first book, 
*' Knickerbocker's History of 
New York," published in 1809, 
was read by everybody. This 
pretended to be a veritable his- 
tory of New York, but was in 
reality a parody on the man- 
ners and customs of the early 
Dutch colonists. About 1820, 
Irving published his ** Sketch 
Book," which is a delightful series 
of pen pictures on various sub- 
jects. The best known of these 
are ** Rip Van Winkle " and the 

" Legend of Sleepy Hollow." After this he wrote many volumes 

on widely differing subjects, closing his life work by the publication 
of the '' Life of Washington." 




Nathaniel Hawthorne. 



LETTERS AND ART. 



383 




William Cullen Bryant. 



740. Novelists. — James Fenimore Cooper, whom Victor Hugo 
calls the American Scott, was a native of New Jersey, and the 

first novelist to be extensively 
read. He is intensely national, 
and his stories all deal with Amer- 
ican subjects. His ** Spy," pub- 
lished in 1 82 1, was the first to be 
specially noticed. This was fol- 
lowed by many others. The 
" Pilot," with Paul Jones as 
the hero, published in 1823, is 
the best of the sea stories, and 
the " Last of the Mohicans," a 
story of Indian life, given to the 
public in 1826, is the best of the 
Leather-stocking Tales. 

William Gilmore Simms wrote 
in a vein quite similar to that 
of Cooper. His best-known works are " The Yemassee," ** The 
Partisan," and " Beauchampe." 
Nathaniel Hawthorne, *' the 
greatest imaginative writer since 
Shakespeare," was a rare genius, 
who wrote with a style unlike that 
of any other author. Hawthorne 
belonged to an old Puritan fam- 
ily, and, though extremely shy ^^\\^J1 
and retiring, was nevertheless a 
keen observer. ** Twice Told 
Tales," published in 1837, was his 
first recognized work, but it was 
several years before his genius 
was fully realized. *' The Scar- 
let Letter," considered by some 
his best work, was issued in 1850. 
This was closely followed by '' The House of Seven Gables " and 
" The Blithedale Romance." *' The Marble Faun " came out in 
i860, and vies with "The Scarlet Letter" in popularity. 




Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 



384 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 




John Greenleaf Whittier. 



741. Poets. — William Cullen Bryant, the father of American 
poetry, began writing verses when but ten years of age. The sub- 
lime *' Thanatopsis," his finest 
poem, was written when he was 
but eighteen. Bryant was essen- 
tially a poet of nature. " To 
a Waterfowl " and *' A Forest 
Hymn " are among the best of 
his shorter poems. His trans- 
lations of Homer's '' Iliad " and 
" The Odyssey," begun when he 
was a very old man, hold first 
rank among English translations. 
The most beloved of all Amer- 
ican poets is Henry Wadsworth 
Longfellow, born in Portland, 
Maine, in 1 807. His poems are so 
graceful and dainty, so clear and 
simple, that children love and understand them as well as do those 
of maturer mind. Some of the most popular of his shorter poems 

are " The Psalm of Life," ** The 
Reaper and the Flowers," *' The 
Village Blacksmith," and " The 
Skeleton in Armor." ** Evange- 
line," a story of Acadia, "Hia- 
watha," a tale of Indian life, and 
" The Courtship of Miles Stand- 
ish," a poem of Pilgrim days, are 
among his longer works. 

John Greenleaf Whittier, New 
England's Quaker poet, was the 
great champion of freedom, whose 
verses did much to hasten the 
fall of slavery. His later poems 
are, however, the most finished. 
** Snowbound," published in 1865, 
a delightful idyl of country life, '• Barbara Frietchie," a tal<=' of the 
RebelHon, and *' Maud Muller" are widely known. 




Edgar Allan Poe. 



LETTERS AND ART. 



385 




Oliver Wendell Holmes. 



Edgar Allan Poe, like Hawthorne, was a most imaginative writer, 
whose poems, among which aie * The Bells " and *' The Raven," are 

weird, melancholy productions. 

The poems of Oliver Wendell 
Hohiies are fall of a delicate wit, 
of which '* The Deacon's Master- 
piece, or the Wonderful One- 
Hoss Shay " is a good example. 
But his fame does not depend 
wholly upon his verses, for his 
prose works, such as the '* Auto- 
crat of the Breakfast Table," and 
his novels, " Elsie Venner " and 
" The Guardian Angel," are writ- 
ten in the most delightful English. 
James Russell Lowell, who, 
like Longfellow and Holmes', 
occupied a professor's chair in 
Harvard University, gave his whole life to literature. His name 
first became widely known when he published, during the War with 
Mexico, the humorous *' Biglow 
Papers," written in Yankee dia- 
lect. *' The Vision of Sir Laun 
fal " is his most finished work. 

742. Philosophers. — Ralph 
Waldo Emerson stands first 
among America's profound 
thinkers, scholars, and essayists. 
His poems are of great beauty, 
and his essays are full of sublime 
thoughts. Henry D. Thoreau, 
a strange recluse, and A. Bron- 
son Alcott assisted in bringing 
into prominence the School of 
Philosophy at Concord. 

743. Historians. — Among the 
historians, George Bancroft and Richard Hildreth hold high rank 
as writers of American history. The first volume of Bancroft's 




James Russell Lowell. 



386 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



"History of the United States" appeared in 1834, while the last 
was not published until 1882. William Hickling Prescott, though 
laboring under the greatest of 



difficulties, wrote many brilliant 
and readable histories. Among 
them are the *' History of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella," '' The Con- 
quest of Mexico," and " Philip the 
Second." John Lothrop Mot- 
ley's *' The Rise of the Dutch 
Republic," ''The History of the 
United Netherlands," and " Life 
of John of Barneveld," are valu- 
able additions to libraries. Jared 
Sparks, at one time President of 
Harvard College, edited the biog- 
raphies of many famous Amer- 
icans. The histories written by 




Ralph Waldo Emerson. 



Francis Parkman thoroughly and accurately discuss the position of 

the French and English in America, and are as interesting as any 

novel. Parkman, like Prescott, is 
a splendid example of one who, 
overcoming great obstacles, has 
accomplished a magnificent work. 
744. Scientists. - — America can 
well be proud of its deep think- 
ers in many branches of science, 
Louis Agassiz the noted zoolo- 
gist and geologist, John James 
Audubon the naturalist, Nathan- 
iel Bowditch the mathematician 
and astronomer, Asa Gray the 
botanist, Arnold Guyot the geog- 
raphist, and Benjamin Silliman 
the chemist, are all authorities in 
their various departments. One 

of the most valuable contributions to knowledge was that of the 

English Dictionary, compiled by Noah Webster. 




George Bancroft. 



LETTERS AND ART. 



3^7 




745. Later Writers. — The latter half of the century has pro- 
duced a large number of authors of no small renown, who are 

widely scattered over the country, 
American writers of the present 
time especially excel in short 
stories, and in the diversity and 
wide range of subjects. Many 
do not confine themselves to one 
branch alone, but are equally well 
known in their prose and poetical 
works. Another noticeable feat- 
ure is the number and excellent 
quality of the books written for 
^-^^ children whose wants had been 
sadly neglected. 

746. Artists. — As the intellec- 
tual powers of the colonists be- 

William Hickling Presooti ^ i i , i , , 

gan to broaden, the natural love 
for the beautiful, at first rigorously repressed in many parts of the 
country, also began to show itself, and artists of no mean ability 
made their appearance. The 
first of these was Benjamin West, 
a poor Quaker lad, who won for 
himself great renown in England 
as well as in America. West was 
closely followed by John Single- 
ton Copley, the portrait painter, 
who placed on canvas the feat- 
ures of so many of the patriots 
of the Revolution. After Cop- 
ley came Gilbert Stuart, *' the 
greatest colorist " America has 
produced, who painted the best- 
known portrait of Washington ; 
and Washington Allston, who is ''''^''''' '-°"'' ^^"'''^• 

said to have held the place in American art that Washington Irving 
held in literature. Peale, Trumbull, Vanderlyn, and Malbone, as 
portrait painters, and Durand, Cole, Kensett, and Inness as landscape 




388 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 

painters, also hold high rank. At the present time American artists 
have turned their attention to black and white drawings, to water- 
colors, and to illustrating for books and magazines, which they have 
raised to the highest degree of art. 

747. Sculptors. — Of all the arts, that of sculpture was the last to 
make its appearance. Nevertheless many Americans have won 
lasting renown by their skill in fashioning the human form in clay. 
Among the best known of the artists are Hiram Powers, Horatio 
Greenough, who planned the Bunker Hill monument, Thomas 
Crawford, one of whose finest works is the statue of liberty on 
the dome of the Capitol at Washington, Randolph Rogers, who 
designed the famous bronze doors of the Capitol, and William 
W. Story. 



CHAPTER LXXXIII. 

THE NATION OF TO-DAY 

748. The South. — One of the most noticeable changes that has 
occurred in the United States during the last thirty years is the 
recuperation of the South. The forms of industry and the modes 
of living have been almost revolutionized in many of the States 
that formerly suffered under the evils of slavery. Marked im- 
provements have taken place in the dwellings and material com- 
forts of the middle classes throughout these Southern States. 
There has been also a notable change in the status of the negro, 
who, as a freedman, feeling himself to be his own master, has 
received some stimulus toward bettering his condition. As labor 
ceased to be a disgrace, thrift and energy became more common 
among all classes. The public school has diminished much of the 
illiteracy that was a necessary accompaniment of slavery. 

749. Its Industries. — In industry and wealth, the South has made 
remarkable strides during these recent years. Agriculture continues 
to be the most important occupation. Soil and climate are unsur- 
passed for the production of many of the most valuable crops. The 
lumber regions are greater than in most other sections, and half of 



THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 389 

the available timber of the country is to be found in the twelve 
most Southern States. The mines are valuable, and have but just 
begun to be worked. In four of these States, the output of iron is 
already more than one-sixth of that of the whole United States, and 
the coal product multiplied four times between 1880 and 1890. 
The most marked change has taken place in manufactures. A 
vigorous start has been made in many directions. Cheap land, 
good water-power, abundance of coal, iron, and lumber, are impor- 
tant aids. The necessary transportation is furnished by the new 
railroads, the mileage of which is six times as great as in i860. 
The population in some of the States is growing as rapidly as in 
any portion of the country. The characteristic occupations which 
formerly distinguished the Southern people are rapidly changing, 
and the nation is becoming more and more completely unified. 

750. The Great West. — One of the most important provisions of 
the Treaty of 1783 (IT 367) was that which assured to the United 
States the Northwest Territory. Jefferson's fifteen million dollars 
added to the young nation the Louisiana Territory (*I[426). These 
two great regions have exhibited to the world a growth and devel- 
opment unprecedented in all history. The population has made 
most remarkable strides, and the productions have increased to an 
equal extent. In the year 1775 the entire population west of the 
AUeghanies was so small that no account of it was made. In i860 
one-half of all the inhabitants in the United States lived to the 
west of the Appalachian range. To-day nearly a quarter of the 
people inhabit the Northwest Territory, and millions dwell west of 
the Mississippi River. During the ten years from 1 880 to 1890, the 
population of the United States gained nearly twenty-five per cent, 
while in the six new State-s admitted in 1889 and 1890, the growth 
averaged two hundred and seventy-five per cent. 

751. Its Industries. — The two most important pursuits of the 
*' Great West " are agriculture and mining. The Northwest Terri- 
tory produces a quarter of all the corn grown in the country, and 
nearly a third of the wheat. Six States west of the Mississippi raise 
nearly a half of all the corn produced in the United States, and nine 
of these States nearly half the wheat. These fourteen States furnish 
nearly a fifth of the wheat obtained in the whole world. A large 
portion of the copper and iron of the United States is found in the 



390 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 

Great West, and nearly all the gold and silver. The United States 
furnishes more than one-half of the copper, one-third of the iron 
and silver, and one-quarter of the gold mined in the world. With 
these enormous agricultural and mining products of the West, and 
the manufacturing industries of the East, the country is enabled to 
provide what it needs. 

752. Immigration. — The rapid increase in population has been 
due mainly to immigration, which has been growing in volume 
during the past seventy years. Between the adoption of the Con- 
stitution and the year 1820 perhaps a quarter of a million foreigners 
came to live in the United States. Since that date the number of 
immigrants has been more than seventeen millions. Neither the 
North, East, South, nor West could have developed in the manner 
that it has were it not for these vast multitudes that have come to 
our aid, bringing in their labor and capital, to increase the produc- 
tions of their adopted country. The immigrants have come from 
all quarters of the globe, but mostly from Europe. Great Britain 
and Ireland have furnished more than six millions, and Germany 
has added four and a half millions more. Norway and Sweden, 
Austria-Hungary, Italy, France, Russia and Poland, Switzerland, 
and other European nations, have sent over their hundreds of 
thousands. A few of these have been skilled laborers and pro- 
fessional men, but perhaps nine-tenths have belonged to the class 
of unskilled laborers, or have possessed no occupation whatever. 
Many of this latter class have been brought over by employers who 
Bought for the cheapest labor that could be obtained. In order to 
fitop this practice. Congress passed a Contract Labor Act, by which 
no foreigner is admitted to this country who has come under a 
contract to labor for some particular employer (1695). Other laws 
have been passed to check the immigration of those classes which 
can add nothing to the wealth or productiveness of the country, 
but which tend to increase the number o( the idle and disturbing 
elements. 

753. Its Diversity. — Waves of immigration have been common 
during the history of the world, but in many respects they have differed 
from this influx of people into the United States. In the past there 
have been examples of the migration of a whole nation from one 
country to another, which frequently drove out the former inhabi- 

24 



THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 39 1 

tants. But in all those cases the incomers have been people of one 
nationality. The immigrants who have come to our shores have 
been from nations having different languages, different religions, 
different customs and habits. They must be united, assimilated, 
made to regard the United States as their country, and all their 
neighbors as their fellow-countrymen. The most important means 
to this end is the public school, which brings all the children to- 
gether and teaches them a common language, common habits, and 
common customs. 

754. Public Schools. — The public-school system began in a few 
of the Northern colonies (1 174) during the early years of their 
existence. From these it gradually spread over the Northern por- 
tion, until it was general in all sections of the country except in 
the slave States. Previous to the civil war some system of public 
schools existed in but four of the States south of Mason and 
Dixon's line, while to-day every State in the Union provides free 
instruction for its children. The principle upon which the system 
is based is that the State should educate the children of the 
State. 

755. Education. — The enrolment of more than fourteen million 
pupils in our schools, or one-fifth of the population, promises future 
safety for our free institutions. Besides the schools, the twenty 
thousand newspapers of the country, nearly one-half of all those 
published in the world, the great number of periodicals of all de- 
scriptions, and the numerous public libraries, furnish still further 
instruction. With these educational advantages, the citizen will 
vote more intelligently, crime will be diminished, a feeling of inde- 
pendence will be produced, inventions will be fostered, and the 
whole condition of the people will be elevated. 

756. Higher Education. — The Colleges of Liberal Arts and the 
Universities furnish higher instruction, and fittingly cap the edu- 
cational system. One or more of these four hundred and eighty- 
four institutions is to be found in every State, and in some 
the college is a part of the State system of instruction. More than 
one hundred and fifty thousand are being educated in these insti- 
tutions, nearly thirty thousand of them in the Professional Schools 
of Law, Theology, Medicine, etc. Higher education is not limited 
to the colleges, as Normal Schools, University Extension, the 



392 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 

Chautauqua System of Education, and Summer Schools assist in 
the great work. 

757. Religion. — A great change in the religious aspect has passed 
over the country within the past one hundred and twenty years. 
In the colonial period, religious toleration was granted in but three 
colonies (IT 183). Church and State were regarded as inseparable, 
and the people were taxed to support the Church. In New England, 
the Congregational Churches were established by law (H iSo), and 
in the Southern colonies the Church of England (IF 179). Laws 
were passed discriminating against those who did not accept the 
faith of the established church, and severe punishments were in- 
flicted upon those who dared to profess other forms. 

758. Freedom. — The spirit of freedom which brought about the 
War for Independence also led to a modification of the religious 
laws. Freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom of the 
press are now universally recognized. The Constitution of the 
United States directs that *' Congress shall make no law respecting 
an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; 
or abridging the freedom of the speech or of the press ; or the right 
of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the government 
for a redress of grievances." The Church and State are kept entirely 
distinct, and the one hundred and sixty-five thousand church organ- 
izations of the nearly one hundred and fifty denominations live 
together in amity, each being equal with the others before the law. 

759. Benevolence. — With the growth of material prosperity has 
come a fuller realization that owners of great possessions have 
special duties to perform. Millions of dollars are bestowed every 
year upon deserving institutions and works of charity. Hospi- 
tals and asylums have been established by private beneficence, 
as well as by the different States and cities. Institutions like the 
American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb in Hartford, the Perkins 
Institute for the Blind at Boston, and the Massachusetts School for 
Idiotic and Feeble-Minded Youth have been carrying on their good 
work for many years. There are more than a hundred homes and 
asylums in New York city alone. 

760. Gifts to the Public. — Gifts have not been confined to chari- 
table work alone. Money has been bequeathed and given to various 
cities for the purchase and laying out of parks, that resting ancj 



THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 393 

" breathing places " might be provided for the people, who other- 
wise would be kept shut up within four walls. Money has been 
profitably expended in the establishment of public libraries. Millions 
of dollars have been given in endowing the University of Chicago, 
Leland Stanford, Jr. University, in California, and numbers of other 
colleges in all sections of the land. Immense bequests have been 
made for the education of the negro and the Indian, such as those 
of Daniel Hand, John F. Slater, and George Peabody. These boun- 
tiful gifts, providing permanent benefits to the people, are among 
the new and wonderful conditions of our times. 

761. Temperance. — Among the various charitable organizations 
are Homes for Inebriates, and Missions for the rescue of those 
addicted to the habit of strong drink. The evils resulting from 
drunkenness have been more recognized as evils during the last 
fifty years than ever before. A hundred years ago it was the cus- 
tom to have a ** social glass " on nearly all occasions. Since the 
organization of the " Washingtonian Temperance Society" in 1840, 
much has been done to diminish intemperance, and the opposition 
to the use of intoxicating drinks has grown stronger and stronger. 
Temperance people are very much divided on the question as to 
the legal steps that should be taken, and ** prohibition," ** local 
option," ** high license," and " restriction of liquor limits," are 
words that are often heard as the subject is discussed. Mean- 
while education concerning the evil effects of strong drink is 
being persistently furthered. Laws requiring scientific temperance 
instruction to be given to the pupils in the public schools have 
been adopted by the legislatures of all the States, and by Con- 
gress for all schools under its control. 

762. Inventions. — The development of the country has been 
greatly aided by the numerous inventions that enterprising Ameri- 
cans have perfected. Five hundred and fifty thousand patents have 
been granted during the last sixty years, about twenty thousand of 
these in the year 1894. Some of the most important have already 
been described, as the cotton-gin (IT 397), the steamboat (IT 456), 
and the telegraph (1 486). The whole system of agriculture has 
been changed by the machinery which has been invented within 
sixty years. In 1834 Cyrus H. McCormick succeeded in perfecting 
a reaping-machine, — an instrument which had been desired for 



394 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 



a long time. This machine, which was propelled by horses (later 
by steam), mowed the grain, and, by a later improvement, bound it 
into sheaves. Horse-rakes and horse-threshers have also been in- 
vented, and thereby farm labor, which previously had been per- 
formed almost entirely by hand, has been greatly lightened. 

The first sewing-machine was invented by Elias Howe in 1845. 
Two years later, R. M. Hoe perfected his cylinder printing-press. 
This invention has revolu- 
tionized the whole business 
of printing, and has made 
possible the issuing of hun- 
dreds of thousands of news- 
papers, cut, printed, and 
folded, from the same press. 
Charles Goodyear discov- 
ered, in 1839, the method 
of "vulcanizing" India- 
rubber, so as to make it 
hard, and able to withstand 
the rough usage which rub- 
ber goods must receive. 

The adaptation of elec- 
tricity, which began when 
Benjamin Franklin proved 
that it was identical with 
lightning, has been contin- 
ued, until we have to-day the 
telegraph, the telephone, in- 
vented by A. G. Bell, in 1 877, 
the electric light for street 
and house, the electric car 
for the street railway, and the phonograph, or " talking-machine," 
invented by Thomas A. Edison, besides the numberless other uses 
to which this wonderful power has already been applied. 

A mere mention of a few of the other important inventions will 
be all that can be given. The grain elevator, the steam dredge, 
machines for the manufacture of nails, the revolver, the screw-pro- 
peller, the safe, the breech-loading gun, the type-writer,' the type- 




Thomas A. Edison. 



(Copyright, by 
W. K. L. Dickson.) 



PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 395 

setting machine, and the bicycle are well known. The development 
of photography, especially during the last few years, has been 
remarkable. Thousands of minor patents have been issued, which 
add to the comfort, convenience, and happiness of the people. 



CHAPTER LXXXIV. 

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 

763. Territorial Growth. — By the treaty of peace with Great 
Hritain in 1783 (IT 367), the boundaries of the United States were 
defined. They were the Atlantic on the east, and the Mississippi 
on the west, the northern line of Florida on the south, and the 
Great Lakes and Canada on the north. This extent of territory 
remained unchanged until the year 1803 (IF 426). By the purchase 
of Louisiana, the United States came into possession of that im- 
mense tract of territory which is bounded upon the east by the 
Mississippi throughout its whole extent, and which extends north- 
ward to latitude 49°, westward to the Rocky Mountains, and to the 
south as far as the Gulf of Mexico. 

In 18 19 we secured the coast of the Gulf of Mexico from the 
Atlantic to Louisiana, by the Florida treaty (IT 446). Our next 
accession was the annexation of Texas in 1845 (^ 4^4)- After the 
war with Mexico, by the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (IT 497), the 
two provinces of New Mexico and California were added to the United 
States. The Gadsden purchase in 1853 definitely fixed our south- 
western boundary. By right of discovery in 1792, by exploration 
in 1805-6, by actual settlement in 181 1, by purchase of French 
claims in 1 803, and of Spanish claims in 1 819, Oregon belonged 
to the United States. By treaty in 1846 (11485), Great Britain 
yielded to us all her claims south of latitude 49°. In 1867 Alaska 
was purchased from Russia. In 1898 we annexed Hawaii, and 
Spain ceded Porto Rico, the Philippine Islands, and Guam. In 
1901 we added Tutuila. 

The United States to-day, embracing about 3,600,000 square 
miles, may be considered as composed of four nearly equal divi- 
sions. The first part, a little less than a quarter of the whole, 



396 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 

includes the original territory east of the Mississippi River, together 
with Florida; the second quarter, of about 900,000 square miles, 
embraces the province of Louisiana ; the third quarter consists of 
the original Texas, about 300,000 square miles, and the Mexican 
cessions of about 600,000 more ; and the fourth quarter includes 
the Oregon country, about 300,000 square miles, and Alaska, about 
600,000 more. 

764. Growth of Population. — While the territory of the United 
States has become more than four times what it was in 1789, the 
population has increased five times four. The causes of this re- 
markable increase are not hard to find. The natural advantages of 
the country are united to certain peculiar characteristics of the gov- 
ernment and the people, and, therefore, offer exceptional advantages 
to the people of other countries. The freedom which the United 
States promises, and the absence of all forms of caste, invite immi- 
gration. The opportunity is afforded to rise to any position of 
honor ; the possibility is presented for every one to overcome any 
difficulties which might oppress him ; and hard work and energy 
are alone needed to enable a citizen of the United States to make a 
name for himself. 

On the 4th of July, 1851, the corner-stone of a vast extension 
to the national Capitol at Washington was laid by the President 
w^ith appropriate ceremonies. On that occasion, Daniel Webster 
was the orator of the day. The table (next page) shows the state- 
ment which he made relative to the progress of our country since 
1793. In order to present the continuation of this progress the last 
column is added, showing the statistics in 1900. 

765. Present Population. — The aggregate population of the United 
States is over seventy-six millions. The average population per 
square mile is more than twenty for the entire area. The greatest 
average per square mile is in Rhode Island, which has over three 
hundred. If the entire country had a population as dense as Rhode 
Island now has, it would contain over a thousand millions, or two- 
thirds the present population of the globe. The population of the 
United States has doubled, on the average, every twenty-five years, 
and is to-day nineteen times what it was a hundred years ago. The 
number of people in the United States must be increased sixfold 
before the number per square mile will equal that of Europe to-day 



PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 



397 



Number of States in the Union . . 

Members of Congress 

Population of the United States 
Population of the City of New York 

Revenue 

I mports 

Exports 

Tonnage of vessels 

Extent of territory of the United > 
States in square miles . . . > 
Miles of railroad in operation . , 
Lines of electric telegraph in miles 

Number of post-offices 

Number of colleges 



1793. 



15 

135 

3,929.328 

33,121 

$5,720,624 

$31,000,000 

$26,109,000 

320,769 

801,461 

none, 
none. 
209 
19 



1851. 



31 

295 
23,267,499 

5^5,507 

$43,774,848 

^178,138,314 
U 5 1,898,720 

3,538,454 
3,021,883 

10,287 
15,000 

21,551 
121 



1900. 



45 

447 

76,304,799 

3,437,202 

$567,240,852 

$849,714,670 

$1,370,763,571 

5.164,839 

3.756,884 

186,590 

933,153 

76.688 

484 



766. Present Extent. ^ The entire extent of our country at the 
present time is 3,756,884 square miles. This area is about the same 
as that of all Europe. It is nearly the size of China. It is more 
than half as large as the whole of South America. It is over 
thirty times the size of Great Britain and Ireland, eighteen times 
as large as France, and twenty times the size of Spain. Any one 
of twenty-four States has a greater area than England. Four States 
and three Territories are each larger than Italy, Montana is larger 
than Norway, California than Japan, and Texas than either Austria- 
Hungary, the German Empire, France, or Spain, and Alaska Ter- 
ritory than the German Empire, France, Italy, Holland, Belgium, 
and Denmark combined. 

767. Natural Advantages. — The advantages which give the United 
States its pre-eminence are of two kinds. The natural advantages 
of the country equal, and perhaps surpass, those of any other region 
on the earth's surface. The soil is not only exceptionally good in 
many portions of the country, but it is capable of raising a great 
variety of products. The ground contains under its surface a large 
amount of metallic ores and an almost inexhaustible stock of coal. 
The climate is very varied, so that the United States is capable of 
producing, and in fact does produce, nearly everything which the 
people can desire. 



398 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 

In its rivers the United States possesses an advantage which can- 
not be overestimated. Many of the smaller streams are capable of 
furnishing unsurpassed water-power. Some of the larger rivers 
traverse vast extents and offer to commerce exceptional privileges. 
The Mississippi River, unlike most of the great rivers of the world, 
flows across the lines of latitude. Though the Amazon River is as 
great as the Mississippi, yet the land at its mouth furnishes the same 
tropical products as the country at its source. On the other hand, 
the wheat of Minnesota and Dakota is, by means of the Mississippi, 
exchanged for the rice, the cotton, and the sugar' of the Southern 
States. 

768. National Advantages. — Besides the natural advantages which 
belong to the United States, the political characteristics of the nation 
present exceptional opportunities. Some of these have been sug- 
gested. The public-school system and the State, county, and town 
governments, offering local, as contrasted with a centralized, govern- 
ment, are important aids in determining the welfare of the country. 
The fact that the United States is customarily at peace and does 
not need to keep a standing army, as is necessary among European 
nations, is another great advantage. 

769. The Future. — " It is clear that this great republic has an 
important future before it. In its prosperity is bound up the ques- 
tion of popular government. If we succeed, a brilliant future may 
be predicted for the human race. If we fail, the hand goes back 
for ages on the dial of progress. The result depends largely upon 
the intelligence and the virtue of the masses. If the people are 
educated to read and to think and to decide for themselves, if they 
retain virtue and godliness, the republic is safe, and the destiny of 
the race is safe also." 

770. Questions of the Future. — A knowledge of the history of the 
United States is necessary to an understanding of the country as it 
is to-day. Such an understanding is necessary in order to settle the 
questions which the future holds in store. Some of the future ques- 
tions are now before the people. They form current history, 
which will be the history to be studied by future generations. Most 
of these questions have been discussed to a certain extent already, 
and their settlement must come at no very distant day. 

How shall the difficulties that exist between the laborers and the 



PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 399 

employers be so settled that both may work together in harmony, 
feeling that each has a care for the interests of the other? (Laboi' 
Question.) (1[ 702.) 

How many foreigners shall be permitted to come to the United 
States, and what restrictions shall be placed upon immigration, so 
that the best interests of the country and the people shall be pre- 
served? (Immigration Question.) (IT 752.) 

What means shall be used for raising the necessary revenue, or 
what kind of tariff duties shall be levied, so as to promote the mate- 
rial welfare of the country and increase to its fullest extent the pro- 
ductiveness of the people? (Tariff Question.) (1[ 692.) 

What steps shall be taken to purify elections, so that every voter 
may cast his ballot in the way that seems to him likely to conserve 
the best interests of the country? (Ballot Reform.) 

What qualifications should voters have, that their ballots shall 
not be unwisely cast, and to what new classes should the ballot be 
given? (Suffrage Question.) 

What laws should be passed, and what forms of moral influence 
should be used, to save the people from the curse of intemperance? 
(Temperance Question.) (t 761.) 

What arrangements ought the national, state, and local govern- 
ments to enter into, so that their affairs may be carried on in busi- 
ness-like ways, and that the money required to maintain governments 
shall be expended in the most economical manner? (Civil Service 
Reform.) (1[ 683.) 

What methods can be devised to awake the business and pro- 
fessional men of the country to the dangers of municipal corruption, 
in order that the government of our great cities may be rescued 
from the hands of untrustworthy men, and administered in a busi- 
ness-like manner, for the welfare of all concerned? (Municipal 
Government Reform.) 

These are among the numerous questions which the people of 
the future must answer. There are also race problems, educational 
questions, and religious matters, that are prominent before the 
people. They all demand the careful and thoughtful consideration, 
not only of the present voters, but also of the school-children, who 
will soon be called upon to cast their ballots, and whose decision will 
eventually decide the welfare of the country. 



400 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. [1897-1902 



CHRONOLOGY. 

1897. President McKinley inaugurated, March 4. 
Dingley Bill. 

1898. The *' Maine " blown up in the harbor of Havana, February 15. 
War declared with Spain, April 22. 

Spanish fleet destroyed at Manila, May i. 

Admiral Cervera's fleet destroyed at Santiago, July 3. 

Hawaiian Islands annexed to the United States, July 7. 

1899. Treaty of peace ratified, February 6. 
Rebellion in the Philippine Islands. 

Joint Samoan Commission appointed, April 13. 
Meeting of the Hague Peace Conference, May. 
Difiiculties with Canada over Alaskan boundary. 

1900. Gold standard enacted, March 14. 
Hawaii made a Territory, April 30. 
Massacre of foreigners in China, June.| 
President McKinley re-elected, November 6. 

1901. Capture of Aguinaldo, March 23. 
Pan-American Exposition opened. May i. 
Steel-makers' strike, August 10. 

President McKinley assassinated, September 6. 

Theodore Roosevelt takes the oath of office, September 14. 

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, December 16. 

1902. Danish West Indies treaty ratified, March. 
Cuba becomes an independent republic, May 20. 



APPENDIXES. 



APPENDIX A. 

THE MAYFLOWER COMPACT. 

In the name of God, Amen ; We whose names are under-written, the 
loyall subjects of our dread soveraigne Lord, King James, by ye grace of 
God of Great Britaine, Franc, & Ireland king, defender of ye faith, &c., 
haveing undertaken, for ye glorie of God and advancemente of ye Chris- 
tian faith, and honour of our king and countrie, a voyage to plant the first 
colonie in ye Northerne parts of Virginia, doe by these presents solemnly 
and mutualy in ye presence of God, and one of another, covenant and 
combine ourselves together into a civill body politick, for our better oi dering 
and preservation and furtherance of ye ends aforesaid ; and by vertue hearof 
to enacte, constitute, and frame such just and equall lawes, ordinances, 
acts, constitutions, and offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most 
meete and convenient for ye generall good of ye Colonie, unto which we 
promise all due submission and obedience. 



APPENDIX B. 

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

In Congress, July 4, 1776. 
A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OF 
AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and 
equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle 



402 APPENDIX B. 

them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : — That all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable 
rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 
That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriv- 
ing their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever 
any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right 
of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, 
laying its foundation on such principles, and organising its powers in such 
form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. 
Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should 
not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experi- 
ence hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are 
sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they 
are accustomed. But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing 
invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute 
despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, 
and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the 
patient sufTerance of these colonies; and such is now the necessity that 
constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history 
of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and 
usurpations, all having, in direct object, the establishment of an absolute 
tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a 
candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary 
for the public good. 

He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing 
importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be 
obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to 
them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts 
of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in 
the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfort- 
able, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole 
purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measure. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with 
manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 4O3 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others 
to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, 
have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, 
in the meantime, exposed to all dangers of invasion from without, and 
convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that 
purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to 
pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions 
of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to 
laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their 
offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of 
officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us in times of peace, standmg armies, without the 
consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, 
the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to 
our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to 
their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders 
which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States ; 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury ; 

For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences ; 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, 
establishing there an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, 
so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing 
the same absolute rule into these colonies ; 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and 
altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested 
with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, 
and waging war against us. 



404 APPENDIX B. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large ajmies of foreign mercenaries to 
complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with 
circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barba- 
rous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, 
to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their 
friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrection amongst us, and has endeavored to 
bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose 
known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, 
and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress, in the 
most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by 
repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act 
which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We 
have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to 
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them 
of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have 
appealed to their native justice and magnanimity ; and we have conjured 
them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, 
which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. 
They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We 
must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation ; 
and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace 
friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in 
General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world 
for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority 
of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare. That 
these united Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent 
states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and 
that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, 
and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, 
they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish 
commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states 
may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 



405 



reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to 
each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed and 
signed by the following members : — 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

JOSIAH BaRTLETT, 

William Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 
Samuel Adams, 
John Adams, 
Robert Treat Paine, 
Elbridge Gerry. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

Stephen Hopkins, 
William Ellery. 

CONNECTICUT. 
Roger Sherman, 
Samuel Huntington, 
William Williams, 
Oliver Wolcott. 

NEW YORK. 
William Floyd, 
Philip Livingston, 
Francis Lewis, 
Lewis Morris. 



John Hancock. 

NEW JERSEY. 
Richard Stockton, 
John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson, 
John Hart, 
Abraham Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 
Robert Morris, 
Benjamin Rush, 
Benjamin Franklin, 
John Morton, 
George Clymer, 
James Smith, 
George Taylor, 
James Wilson, 
George Ross. 

DELAWARE. 

Cesar Rodney, 
George Read, 
Thomas M'Kean. 

MARYLAND. 
Samuel Chase, 
William Paca, 
Thomas Stone. 



Charles Carroll, 
of Carrollton. 

VIRGINIA. 
George Wythe, 
Richard Henry Lee, 
Thomas Jefferson, 
Benjamin Harrison, 
Thomas Nelson, Jr., 
Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton. 

NORTH CAROLINA 
William Hooper, 
Joseph Hewes, 
John Penn. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 
Edward Rutledge, 
Thomas Heyward, Jr., 
Thomas Lynch, Jr., 
Arthur Middleton. 

GEORGIA. 
Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall, 
George Walton. 



Resolved that copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assemblies, 
conventions, and committees, or councils of safety, and to the several com- 
manding officers of the. continental troops ; that it be proclaimed in each of 
the United States, at the head of the army. 



406 APPENDIX C. 

APPENDIX C. 

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, 
estabhsh Justice, insure domestic Tranquilhty, provide for the conniion 
defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty 
to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution 
for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I. 

[Note. — The small figures in brackets are not in the original, but have been added 
subsequently, to mark the different clauses in a section. In reprinting the constitution 
here, the spelling, punctuation, and capitalization of the original have been preserved.] 

Section i. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a 
Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of 
Representatives. 

Section 2. "^'^The House of Representatives shall be composed of Mem- 
bers chosen every second year by the People of the several States, and the 
Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors 
of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. 

^""^ No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the 
Age of twenty five years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he 
shall be chosen. 

f3J Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several States which may be included within this Union, according to their 
respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole 
Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of 
\^ears, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. 
The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first 
Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent 
Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The 
Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every Thirty Thousand, 
but eacK. State shall have at Least one Representative ; and until such enum- 
eration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse 
three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode- Island and Providence Plantations one, 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 407 

Connecticut five, New- York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Dela- 
ware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina 
five, and Georgia three. 

WWhen vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the 
Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacan- 
cies. 

isiThe House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other 
officers ; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. 

Section 3. "^'^ The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years ; 
and each Senator shall have one Vote. 

^"^ Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first 
Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. 
The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expira- 
tion of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth 
Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that 
one-third may be chosen every second Year ; and if Vacancies happen by 
Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, 
the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next 
Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. 

f^^No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age 
of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who 
shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be 
chosen. 

WThe Vice President of the United States shall be President of the 
Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. 

'^'The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro 
tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise 
the Office of President of the United States. 

^^^The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When 
sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the 
President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside : And 
no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the 
Members present. 

^'J Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to 
removal from Office, and Disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of 
honour. Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party convicted 
shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and 
Punishment, according to Law. 



408 APPENDIX C. 

Section 4. ^'^ The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for 
Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the 
Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or 
alter such Regulations, except as to the places of chusing Senators. 

f^^The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such 
Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
Law appoint a different Day. 

Section 5. ^'^Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns 
and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall consti- 
tute a Quorum to do Business ; but a smaller Number may adjourn from 
day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent 
Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may 
provide. 

f=l Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its 
Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, 
expel a Member. 

f^J Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to 
time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment 
require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House 
on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered 
on the Journal. 

^*i Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the 
Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section 6. ^'^The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compen- 
sation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the 
Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, 
Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their 
Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either House, 
they shall not be questioned in any other Place. 

W No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was 
elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United 
States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have 
been encreased during such time ; and no Person holding any Office under 
the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continu- 
ance in Office. 

Section 7. ^'^AU Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House 
of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amend- 
ments as on other Bills. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 4^9 

^*' Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and 
the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of 
the United States ; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return 
it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who 
shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to recon- 
sider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree 
to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other 
House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two 
thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such cases the 
Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names 
of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal 
of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the Presi- 
dent within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented 
to him, the same shall be a law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, 
unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case 
it shall not be a Law. 

f3i Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a ques- 
tion of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United 
States ; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or 
being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and 
House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed 
in the Case of a Bill. 

Section 8. The Congress shall have Power 

I'^To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the 
Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the 
United States ; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform through- 
out the United States ; 

^"■^To borrow Money on the credit of the United States ; 

^^To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian Tribes ; 

^'»^To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on 
the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

t^^To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and 
fix the Standard of Weights and Measures; 

^*^To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and 
current Coin of the United States; 

^^^ To establish Post Offices and post Roads ; 

•••^ To promote the progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for 



4IO APPENDIX C. 

limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respec- 
tive Writings and Discoveries ; 

^9lTo constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court; 

t'^^To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high 
Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations; 

^"^To declare War, grant letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make 
Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; 

^"^ To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that 
Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years ; 

f'3] To provide and maintain a Navy ; 

^'*J To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and 
naval Forces; 

^*5l To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the 
Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; 

t'^^^To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and 
for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the 
United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the 
Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the Discipline 
prescribed by Congress ; 

t*'^ To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such 
District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular 
States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Govern- 
ment of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places 
purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same 
shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, Dock- Yards, and 
d*her needful Buildings ; — And 

t'«J To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this 
Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department 
i^r Officer thereof. 

Section 9. t'^The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of 
he States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited 
i>y the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, 
but a Tax or Duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding 
ten dollars for each Person. 

^'^The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, 
/inless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may 
fequire it. 

t3i No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 4II 

f^^No Capitation, or otlier direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion 
to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 

^sl No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. 

^^^No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or 
Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another : nor shall Vessels 
bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties 
in another. 

^7^ No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but inconsequence of 
Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular Statement and Account of the 
Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time 
to time. 

^^1 No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no 
Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the 
Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, 
of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. 

Section i o. ^'^ No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confed- 
eration ; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal ; coin Money ; emit Jiills of 
Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of 
Debts ; pass any Pill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the 
Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. 

^'^ No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts 
or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary 
for executing it's inspection Laws : and the net Produce of all Duties and 
Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of 
the Treasury of the United States ; and all such Laws shall be subject to 
the Revision and Controul of the Congress. 

f3iNo State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of 
Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any 
Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or 
engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will 
not admit of Delay. 

ARTICLE. II, 

Section i. ^'^The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the 
United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of 
four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, 
be elected, as follows 

^^1 Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators 



412 APPENDIX C. 

and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : 
but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or 
Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. 

* ^3] The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot 
for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same 
State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted 
for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and 
certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United 
States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate 
shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all 
the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having 
the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a 
Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed ; and if there be more 
than one who have such Majority and have an equal number of Votes, then the 
House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for 
President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on 
the List the said House shall in like manner chuse the President. But in 
chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representa- 
tion from each State having one Vote ; a Quorum for this Purpose shall 
consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a 
Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every Case, 
after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of 
Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should 
remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from 
them by Ballot the Vtce President. 

^-♦^The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and 
the Day on which they shall give their Votes ; which Day shall be the same 
throughout the United States. 

fsi No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United 
States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to 
the Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office 
who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been four- 
teen Years a Resident within the United States. 

t^l In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, 
Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said 
office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may 
by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inability, 
both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then 

* This clause has been superseded by the 12th amendment, see page 399. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 413 

act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability 
be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

t^^ The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his services, a Com- 
pensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the 
Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of 
them. 

f^^ Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the follow- 
ing Oath or Affirmation : — 

" I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office 
of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, pre- 
serve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." 

Section 2. ^'^The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army 
and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, 
when called into the actual Service of the United States ; he may require 
the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive 
Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective 
Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for 
Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. 

1^1 He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Sen- 
ate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur ; 
and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the 
Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, 
Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, 
whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall 
be established by Law : but the Congress may by Law vest the Appoint- 
ment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, 
in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. 

i3l The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may hap- 
pen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall 
expire at the End of their next Session. 

Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information 
of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such 
Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordi- 
nary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case 
of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the time of Adjournment, 
he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall 
receive Ambassadors and other pubUc Ministers ; he shall take Care that 
the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the officers of 
the United States. 



414 APPENDIX C. 

Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Ofificers of the 
United States, shall be removed from Ofifice on Impeachment for, and Con- 
viction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. 



ARTICLE. III. 

Section i. The Judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in 
one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from 
time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and 
inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at 
stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation which shall not be 
diminished during their Continuance in Office. 

Section 2. '^'^Thc Judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and 
Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and 
Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority ; — to all Cases 
affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls ; — to all Cases 
of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction ; — to Controversies to which the 
United States shall be a Party ; — to Controversies between two or more 
States j — between a State and Citizens of another State ; — between Citi- 
zens of different States, — between Citizens of the same State claiming 
Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens 
thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. 

^^^ In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, 
md those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have 
original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme 
Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such 
Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. 

'3JThe Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by 
Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall 
have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the Trial 
shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. 

Section 3. ^^^ Treason against the United States, shall consist only in 
levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid 
and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the 
Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in 
open Court. 

^"^The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, 
but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture 
except during the Life of the Person attainted. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 415 

ARTICLE. IV. 

SiECTiON I. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the 
public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And 
the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such 
Acts, Records, and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. 

Section 2. ^'^ The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges 
and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. 

^-^ A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, 
who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand 
of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, 
to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. 

^31 No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regula- 
tion therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be deliv- 
ered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. 

Section 3. ^'^New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction 
of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more 
States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the 
States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

1^1 The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful 
Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging 
to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed 
as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. 

Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this 
Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them 
against Invasion, and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive 
(when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. 

ARTICLE. V. 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it neces- 
sary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application 
of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention 
for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all 
Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the 
Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in 
three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be 



4l6 APPENDIX C. 

proposed by the Congress ; Provided that no Amendment which may be 
made prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any 
Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first 
Article ; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its 
equal Suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE. VI. 

W All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adop- 
tion of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under 
this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

^^^This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be 
made in pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, 
under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the 
Land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in 
the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. 

WThe Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members 
of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both 
of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or 
Affirmation, to support this Constitution ; but no religious Test shall ever be 
required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United 
States. 

ARTICLE. VII. 

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for 
the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the 
Same. 

Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of che States present 
the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one 
thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence 
of the United States of America the Twelfth. 3^11 Wiitnt66 whereof 
We have hereunto subscribed our Names, 

G° WASHINGTON — 
Presidt and deputy from Virginia 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
John Langdon Nicholas Oilman 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Nathaniel Gorham Rufus King 



417 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

CONNECTICUT. 
Wm Sami, Johnson Roger Sherman 

NEW YORK. 
Alexander Hamilton 

NEW JERSEY. 

WiL Livingston David Brearley 

Wm Paterson Jona Dayton 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

B Franklin Thomas Mifflin 

Robt Morris Geo Clymer 

Tho Fitzsimons Jared Ingersoll 

James Wilson Gouv Morris 

DELAWARE. 

Geo Read Gunning Bedford, Jun'r 

John Dickinson Richard Bassett 

Jaco Broom 

MARYLAND. 

James M'Henry Dan of St Thos Jenifer 

Danl Carroll 

VIRGINIA. 
John Blair James Madison, Jr 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

Wm Blount Rich'd Dobbs Spaight 

Hu Williamson 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

J Rutledge Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 

Charles Pinckney Pierce Butler 

GEORGIA. 
William Few Abr Baldwin 

Attest. WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. 



4l8 APPENDIX C. 

Articles in Addition to, and Amendment of, the Consti- 
tution OF THE United States of America, 

Proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States^ 
pursuant to the fifth article of the original Constitution, 

(ARTICLE I.) 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or 
prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, 
or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to 
petition the Government for a redress of grievances. 

(ARTICLE II.) 

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, 
the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. 

(ARTICLE III.) 

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the 
consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed 
by law. 

(ARTICLE IV.) 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, 
and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or 
affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the 
persons or things to be seized. 

(ARTICLE V.) 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous 
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in 
cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual 
service in time of War or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for 
the same offence to be twice put in jeopafdy of life or limb ; nor shall be 
compelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against himself, nor be de- 
prived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall 
private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 419 

(ARTICLE VI.) 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy 
and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the 
crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously 
ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the 
accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have Com- 
pulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favour, and to have the Assis- 
tance of Counsel for his defence. 

(ARTICLE VII.) 

In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried 
by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, 
than according to the rules of the common law. 

(ARTICLE VIII.) 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

(ARTICLE IX.) 

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be con- 
strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

(ARTICLE X.) 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor 
prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to 
the people. 

(ARTICLE XI.) 

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend 
to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the 
United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any 
Foreign State. 

(ARTICLE XII.) 

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for 
President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabi- 
tant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the 
person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for 
as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for 
as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the 



420 APPENDIX C. 

number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and 
transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed 
to the President of the Senate ; — The President of the Senate shall, in 
presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certifi- 
cates and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the great- 
est number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; and if no person 
have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not 
exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of 
Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in 
choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation 
from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of 
a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all 
the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representa- 
tives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve 
upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice- 
President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other consti- 
tutional disability of the President. — The person having the greatest 
number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such 
number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no 
person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the 
Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall 
consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the 
whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitution- 
ally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice- 
President of the United States. 

(ARTICLE XIII.) 

Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a pun- 
ishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall 
exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Sect. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

(ARTICLE XIV.) 

Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States, and of 
the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law 
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United 
States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 42 I 

without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the 
equal protection of the laws. 

Sect. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States, 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of 
persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to 
vote at any election for the choice of electors for president and vice- 
president of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive 
and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is 
denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years 
of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for 
participation in rebellion or other crimes, the basis of representation shall 
be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall 
bear to the whole number of male citizens, twenty-one years of age, in such 
State. 

Sect. 3. No person shall be a senator or representative m Congress, or 
elector of president or vice-president, or hold any office, civil or mihtary, 
under the United States or under any State, who having previously taken an 
oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a 
member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any 
State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged 
in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the 
enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each house 
remove such disability. 

Sect. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized 
by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for 
services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. 
But neither the United States, nor any State, shall assume or pay any debt 
or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United 
States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such 
debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Sect. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate 
legislation the provisions of this article. 

(ARTICLE XV.) 

Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be 
denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, 
color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Sect. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 



42 2 APPENDIX D 



APPENDIX D. 

EXTRACTS FROM WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 

Friends and Fellow-Citizens, 

The period for a new election of a Citizen, to administer the Execu- 
tive Government of the United States, being not far distant, and the time 
actually arrived, when your thoughts must be employed in designating the 
person, who is to be clothed with that important trust, it appears to me 
proper, especially as it may conduce to a more distinct expression of the 
public voice, that I should now apprise you of the resolution I have formed, 
to decline being considered among the number of those, out of whom a 
choice is to be made. . . . 

In looking forward to the moment, which is intended to terminate the 
career of my public life, my feelings do not permit me to suspend the deep 
acknowledgment of that debt of gratitude, which I owe to my beloved 
country, — for the many honors it has conferred upon me ; still more for 
the steadfast confidence with which it has supported me ; and for the 
opportunities I have thence enjoyed of manifesting my inviolable attach- 
ment, by services faithful and persevering, though in usefulness unequal to 
my zeal. . . . Here, perhaps, I ought to stop. — But a solicitude for your 
welfare, which cannot end but with my life, and the apprehension of danger, 
natural to that solicitude, urge me on an occasion like the present, to offer 
to your solemn contemplation, and to recommend to your frequent review, 
some sentiments ; which are the result of much reflection, of no inconsider- 
able observation, and which appear to me all important to the permanency 
of your felicity as a People. . . . 

Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your hearts, 
no recommendation of mine is necessary to fortify or confirm the attachment. 
— The Unity of Government, which constitutes you one people, is also now 
dear to you. — It is justly so ; — for it is a main Pillar in the Edifice of your 
real independence ; the support of your tranquillity at home ; your peace 
abroad ; of your safety ; of your prosperity in every shape ; of that very 
Liberty, which you so highly prize. ... It is of infinite moment, that 
you should properly estimate the immense value of your national Union 
to your collective and individual happiness ; — that you should cherish a 
cordial, habitual and immoveable attachment to it ; accustoming yourselves 
to think and speak of it as of the Palladium of your political safety and 



EXTRACTS FROM WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 423 

prosperity ; watching for its preservation with jealous anxiety ; discounte- 
nancing whatever may suggest even a suspicion that it can in any event be 
abandoned, and indignantly frowning upon the first dawning of every at- 
tempt to alienate any portion of our Country from the rest, or to enfeeble 
the sacred ties which now link together the various parts, . . . 

While then every part of our Country thus feels an immediate and par- 
ticular interest in Union, all the parts combined in the united mass of means 
and efforts cannot fail to find greater strength, greater resource, propor- 
tionably greater security from external danger, a less frequent interruption of 
their Peace by foreign Nations ; and, what is of inestimable value ! they must 
derive from Union an exemption from those broils and wars between them- 
selves, which so frequently afflict neighboring countries, not tied together by 
the same government ; which their own rivalships alone would be sufficient 
to produce ; but which opposite foreign alliances, attachments, and intrigues 
would stimulate and embitter. . . . 

The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign Nations, is, in 
extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little Political 
connection as possible. . . . Europe has a set of primary interests, which 
to us have none, or a very remote relation. — Hence she must be engaged 
in frequent controversies, the causes of which are essentially foreign to our 
concerns. — Hence therefore it must be unwise in us to implicate ourselves, 
by artificial ties in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordinary 
combinations and collisions of her friendships, or enmities. Our detached 
and distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a different course. . . . 
'T is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances, with any portion 
of the f(;reign world. . . . 

'T is substantially true, that virtue or morality is a necessary spring of 
popular government. . . . Promote, then, as an object of primary import- 
ance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion 
as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential 
that public opinion should be enlightened. — 

As a very important source of strength and security, cherish public 
credit. — One method of preserving it is, to use it as sparingly as possible : — 
avoiding occasions of expense by cultivating peace, but remembering also 
that timely disbursements to prepare for danger frequently prevent much 
greater disbursements to repel it — avoiding likewise the accumulation of 
debt, not only by shunning occasions of expense, but by vigorous exertions 
in time of Peace to discharge the debts which unavoidable wars may have 
occasioned, not ungenerously throwing upon posterity the burthen which 



424 APPENDIX D. 

we ourselves ought to bear. The execution of these maxims belongs 
to your Representatives, but it is necessary that public opinion should 
cooperate. — 

To facilitate to them the performance of their duty, it is essential that 
you should practically bear in mind, that towards the payment of debts there 
must be Revenue — that to have Revenue there must be taxes — that no 
taxes can be devised which are not more or less inconvenient and unpleas- 
ant — • that the intrinsic embarrassment inseparable from the selection of the 
proper objects (which is always a choice of difficulties) ought to be a 
decisive motive for a candid construction of the conduct of the Govern- 
ment in making it, and for a spirit of acquiescence in the measures for 
obtaining Revenue which the public exigencies may at any time dictate. — 
Observe good faith and justice towards all Nations. Cultivate peace and 
harmony with all. . . . 

Though, in reviewing the incidents of my Administration, I am uncon- 
scious of intentional error — I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects not 
to think it probable that I may have committed many errors. — Whatever 
they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils 
to which they may tend. — I shall also carry with me the hope that my 
country will never cease to view them with indulgence ; and that after 
forty- five years of my life dedicated to its service, with an upright zeal, the 
faults of incompetent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must 
soon be to the mansions of rest. 

Relying on its kindness in this as in other things, and actuated by that 
fervent love towards it, which is so natural to ,a man, who views in it the 
native soil of himself and his progenitors for several generations ; — I antici- 
pate with pleasing expectation that retreat, in which I promise myself to 
realize, without alloy, the sweet enjoyment of partaking, in the midst of my 
fellow-citizens, the benign influence of good Laws under a free Govern- 
ment, — the ever favourite object of my heart, and the happy reward, as I 
trust, of our mutual cares, labours, and dangers. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

United States, 
September 17 th, 1796. 



LINCOLN'S SECOND INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 425 

APPENDIX E. 

LINCOLN'S SECOND INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 
Fellow-Countrymen : 

At this second appearing to take the oath of the Presidential office, 
there is less occasion for an extended address than there was at the first. 
Then a statement somewhat in detail of a course to be pursued seemed 
very fitting and proper. Now, at the expiration of four years, during which 
public declarations have been constantly called forth on every point and 
phase of the great contest which still absorbs the attention and engrosses 
the energies of the nation, little that is new could be presented. 

The progress of our arms, upon which all else chiefly depends, is as 
well known to the public as to myself; and it is, I trust, reasonably satis- 
factory and encouraging to all. With high hope for the future, no predic- 
tion in regard to it is ventured. 

On the occasion corresponding to this, four years ago, all thoughts were 
anxiously directed to an impending civil war. All dreaded it ; all sought 
to avoid it. While the inaugural address was being delivered from this 
place, devoted altogether to saving the Union without war, insurgent agents 
were in this city seeking to destroy it without war, — seeking to dissolve the 
Union and divide the effects by negotiation. Both parties deprecated war ; 
but one of them would make war rather than let the nation survive, and 
the other would accept war rather than let it perish ; and the war came. 

One-eighth of the whole population were colored slaves, not distributed 
generally over the Union, but localized in the southern part of it. These 
slaves constituted a peculiar and powerful interest. All knew that this 
interest was somehow the cause of the war. To strengthen, perpetuate, 
and extend this interest, was the object for which the insurgents would 
rend the Union even by war, while the Government claimed no right to 
do more than to restrict the territorial enlargement of it. 

Neither party expected for the war the magnitude or the duration which 
it has already attained. Neither anticipated that the cause of the conflict 
might cease with, or even before, the conflict itself should cease. Each 
looked for an easier triumph, and a result less fundamental and astounding. 

Both read the same Bible and pray to the same God, and each invokes 
his aid against the other. It may seem strange that any men should dare 
to ask a just God's assistance in wringing their bread from the sweat of 
other men's faces ; but let us judge not, that we be not judged. The 



426 APPENDIX E. 

prayers of both could not be answered. That of neither has been answered 
fully. The Almighty has his own purposes. " Woe unto the world because 
of offences, for it must needs be that offences come ; but woe to that man 
by whom the offence cometh." If we shall suppose that American slavery 
is one of these offences, which in the providence of God must needs come, 
but which, having continued through his appointed time, he now wills to 
remove, and that he gives to both North and South this terrible war as 
the woe due to those by whom the offence came, shall we discern therein 
any departure from those divine attributes which the believers in a living 
God always ascribe to him? Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray, 
that this mighty scourge of war may soon pass away. Yet, if God wills 
that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bondman's two hundred 
and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of 
blood drawn with the lash shall be paid with another drawn with the sword ; 
as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said, " The judg- 
ments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether." 

With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the 
fight as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work 
we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have 
borne the battle and for his widow and orphans, to do all which may 
achieve and cherish a just and a lasting peace among ourselves and with 
all nations. 



APPENDIX F. 

LINCOLN'S ADDRESS AT GETTYSBURG. 

The short address made by President Lincoln, November 19th, 1863, at 
the dedication of the National Cemetery on the battlefield of Gettysburg, 
has become a classic, and is jusdy entitled to be ranked as one of the 
choicest gems of literature in the English language. It embodies in brief 
the philosophy of the whole great struggle. 

Various reports have been made as to how, when, and under what 
circumstances the President wrote the address. In the note of invitation 
by the master of ceremonies, written November 2d, occurs this sentence : 
" It is the desire that, after the oration, you, as Chief Executive of the 
>Jation, formally set apart these grounds to their sacred use, by a few 
appropriate remarks." 



LINCOLN'S ADDRESS AT GETTYSBURG. 427 

The President would be likely, therefore, to give some thought to the 
subject before the day arrived, but there is conclusive evidence that the 
words of the address were not written out until after the Presidential party 
had arrived upon the ground. 

The following account of how the address was written was received 
directly from the lips of ex-Governor Curtin, of Pennsylvania, who was 
present on the occasion and knew whereof he affirmed. Governor Curtin 
said that after the arrival of the party from Washington, while the Presi- 
dent and his cabinet, Edward Everett, the orator of the day, Governor 
Curtin, and others were sitting in the parlor of the hotel, the President 
remarked that he understood the committee expected him to say some- 
diing. He would, therefore, if they would excuse him, retire to the 
next room and see if he could write out something. He was absent some 
:ime, and upon returning to the company had in his hand a large-sized, 
yellow government envelope. The President sat down, and remarked that 
he had written something, and with their permission he would Hke to read 
it to them, and invited them to criticise it. After reading what he had 
written upon the envelope, he asked for any suggestions they might make. 
Secretary Seward volunteered one or two comments, which Mr. Lincoln 
accepted and incorporated. Then he said, " Now, gentlemen, if you will 
sxcuse me again, I will copy this off," and retiring again made a fresh 
copy to read from. 

" Ah ! " said Governor Curtin, " if I had begged that yellow envelope, 
which contained the original draft of this justly famous speech, how valu- 
able it would have proved for the fairs which were, soon after, the order 
of the day." 

The following is a complete copy of this famous address : — 

"Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this 
continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the propo- 
sition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great 
civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so 
dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that 
war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting- 
place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It 
is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger 
sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow, this 
ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have con- 
secrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will 
little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget 



428 APPENDIX F. 

what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here 
to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly 
advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task 
remaining before us, — that from these honored dead we take increased 
devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devo- 
tion, — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died 
in vain, that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom, 
and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall 
not perish from the earth. ' 



APPENDIX G. 

SUPPLEMENTARY READING FOR YOUNG PEOPLE 
GENERAL HISTORY. —Historical. 

Bonner Child's History of the United States (3 vols.). 

Bryant and Gay . Popular History of the United States (4 vols.). 
BuTTERWORTH .... Young Folks' History of America. 

Dodge Stories of American History. 

Ellis Youth's History of the United States. 

Half Hours in American History (2 vols.). 
Johonnot Grandfather's Stories. 

" Stories of Heroic Deeds. 

" Stories of Our Country. 

" ...... Ten Great Events in History. 

Monroe Story of Our Country. 

Pratt American History Stories. 

BiographicaL 

Parker Historic Americans. 

Parton Famous Americans. 

Historical Poetry. 
BuTTERWORTH . . o . Songs of History. 
Carrington Beacon Lights of Patriotism. 

THE RED INDIANS. —Descriptive 

Brooks The Story of the American Indian. 

Catlin Life among the Indians. 

Jackson ...,.,. A Century of Dishonor. 

Historical. 

Drake . Indian History for Young Folks. 

Ellis . . , The Red Man and the White Man. 



SUPPLEMENTARY READING FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. 429 

Markham King Philip's War. 

Parkman Conspiracy of Pontiac. 

Biographical. 

Eggleston Brant and Red Jacket. 

" Pocahontas. 

" Tecumseh. 

Historical Fiction. 

Cooper Deerslayer. (French and Indian Wars.) 

" Last of the Mohicans. (do.) 

" Pathfinder. (do.) 

" Pioneers. (do.) 

" Prairie. (do.) 

« Red Rover. (do.) 

Hale , . . . Red and White. (Indian Gratitude.) 

Jackson Ramona. (Southern California.) 

SIMMS Yemassee. (South Carolina.) 

Historical Poetry. 
Longfellow .... Hiawatha. (Indian Legends.) ^ 

Lowell Chippewa Legend. 

Whittier Bridal of Pennacook. 

COLONIAL PERIOD. — HistoricaL 

Banvard Southern Explorers and Colonists. 

BuTTERWORTH .... Young Folks' History of Boston. 

Coffin Old Times in the Colonies. 

Drake Making of New England. 

" Taking of Louisburg. • 

Earle The Sabbath in Puritan New England. 

FiSKE Beginnings of New England. 

Oilman Colonization of America. 

" Discovery and Exploration of America. 

" Making of the American Nation. 

" The Story of Boston. 

Hale Stories of Discovery. 

" Story of Massachusetts. 

Higginson Travelers and Outlav/s. 

Lodge History of the English Colonies. 

Moore From Colony to Commonwealth. 

" Pilgrims and Puritans. 

Parkman A Half-Century of Conflict. 

" Discovery of the Great West. 

" Frontenac and New France under Louis XIVc 

" Jesuits in North America. 



43^ APPENDIX G. 

Pakkman Montcalm and Wolfe. 

" Old Regime in Canada. 

" Pioneers of France in the New World. 

Wright Children's Stories in American History. 

Biographical. 

Abbott Ferdinand de Soto. 

" ......... Miles Standish. 

" Peter Stuyvesant. 

Abernethy Autobiography of Franklin. 

Bell Heroes of American Discovery. 

Oilman Tales of the Pathfinders. 

HiGGiNSON Young Folks' Book of American Explorers. 

HoSMER Young Sir Henry Vane. (Massachusetts.) 

Humphrey Adventures of Early Discoverers. 

Markham The Sea Fathers* 

Thayer Farmer Boy. (Washington.) 

Towle Drake, the Sea King of Devon. 

" Magellan. 

« Sir Walter Raleigh. 

" Vasco da Gama. 

Twitchell John Winthrop. 

Walker Thomas Hooker. 

Historical Fiction. 

Austin . ^ Betty Alden. (Plymouth.) 

" , Doctor Le Baron and his Daughters. (Plymouth.) 

" A Nameless Nobleman. (Plymouth.) 

" Standish of Standish. (Plymouth.) 

Brooks In Leisler's Times. (New York.) 

Cooke . My Lady Pocahontas. 

" , Stories of the Old Dominion. 

" >■ Virginia Comedians. 

Cooper • - Mercedes of Castile. (Spanish.) 

" The Water Witch. (New York.) 

Drakr ' New England Legends and Folk Lore. 

Faith White's Letter Book. (Massachusetts.) 

Hawthorne Grandfather's Chair. (New England.) 

" Legends of the Province House. (Boston.) 

" Twice Told Tales. (New England.) 

Holland Bay Path. (Witchcraft.) 

Irving Sketch Book. 

Kellogg Good Old Times. 

Kennedy Rob of the Bowl. (Maryland.) 

Markham On the Edge of Winter. 



SUPPLEMENTARY READING FOR YOUNG PEOPLE, 



431 



ScuDDER Boston Town. 

SIMMS Vasconselos. (De Soto.) 

Thompson The Green Mountain Boys. 



DURFEE . . 

Hemans . . 
Longfellow 



Lowell 
Preston 



Historical Poetry. 

" What Cheer ? " (Rhode Island.) 

Landing of the Pilgrims. 

Courtship of Miles Standish. (Plymouth.) 

Evangeline. (Acadia.) 

Giles Corey. (Witchcraft.) 

John Endicott. (Salem.) 

Sir Humphrey Gilbert. 

Columbus. 

Colonial Ballads. 



REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. — Historical. 

Abbott Blue Jackets of '76. 

Brooks Story of the American Sailor. 

" Story of the American Soldier. 

Coffin Boys of '76. 

Drake Burgoyne's Invasion. 

Ellet Domestic History of the American Revolution. 

FiSKE Critical Period of the United States. 

" The War of Independence. 

Hoppus The Great Treason. 

Lossing Pictorial Field-Book of the Revolution. 

Ludlow War of Independence. 

Preble History of the Flag. 

Roosevelt Winning the West. 

ScuDDER Men and Manners in America. 

Watson Boston Tea Party. 

" Camp Fires of the Revolution. 

Woodman Boys and Girls of the Revolution. 

Biographical. 

Farmer General La Fayette. 

FiSKE Washington and his Country. 

Benjamin Franklin. (World's Worker Series.) 

Greene Life of General Greene. 

Hale George Washington. 

Hosmer Samuel Adams. 

Lodge George Washington. 

Lossing Mary and Martha Washington. 

" Two Spies. 

SIMMS Life of Marion. 



432 APPENDIX G. 

Historical Fiction. 
Cooper Lionel Lincoln. (Siege of Boston.) 

" The Pilot. (Paul Jones.) 

« The Spy. 

Ellis Storm Mountain. (Pennsylvania and Virginia.) 

" Wyoming. (Pennsylvania.) 

Greene Peter and Polly. (New England.) 

Henty True to the Flag. (Tory.) 

Kennedy Horse Shoe Robinson. (Southern Colonies.) 

SIMMS American Spy. 

Historical Poetry. 

Bryant Seventy-Six. 

" Song of Marion's Men. (Southern Colonies.) 

Eggleston American War Ballads and Lyrics. 

Emerson Concord Fight. 

Emmons Battle of Bunker Hill. 

English Boy's Book of Battle Lyrics. 

Holmes Grandmother's Story of the Battle of Bunker Hill 

Longfellow .... Paul Revere's Ride. 

LOTHROP The Minute Man. 

Moore Songs of the Soldiers. 

CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. — Historical. 

Abbott Blue Jackets of 1812. 

Black Story of Ohio. (Pioneer.) 

Brooks Story of New York. 

Cable The Negro Question. 

Coffin Building the Nation. 

Irving Astoria. (Oregon.) 

Drake Making of the Great West. (Northwest Territory,) 

Haygood Our Brother in Black. 

McMaster ..... History of the People of the United States. 
Our First Century. 

Soley Boys of 1812. 

Taylor El Dorado. (Spanish America.) 

Wright Children's Stories of American Progress. 

Biographical. 

Abbott Daniel Boone. (Kentucky.) 

Adams John Randolph. 

Bolton Famous American Statesmen. 

Bowditch Nat the Navigator. (Nathaniel Bowditcli.) 

Fremont Souvenirs of my Time. 

Gay James Madison. 



SUPPLEMENTARY READING FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. 433 

Oilman James Monroe. 

Hunt American Merchants. 

Larcom A New England Girlhood. 

Lodge Alexander Hamilton. 

" ■ Daniel Webster. 

Magruder John Marshall. 

McLaughlin .... Lewis Cass. 

Morse Benjamin Franklin. 

" John Adams. 

" John Quincy Adams. 

" Thomas Jefferson. 

Pellew John Jay. 

Penniman The Tanner Boy. (Grant.) 

Redpath ....... John Brown. 

Roosevelt Gouverneur Morris. 

" Thomas Hart Benton. 

SCHURZ Henry Clay. 

Stevens Albert Gallatin. 

Stoddard Lives of the Presidents of the United States. 

Thayer Success. (Successful Men.) 

Tyler Patrick Henry. 

Upton Our Early Presidents, their Wives and Children. 

Von Holst John C. Calhoun. 

Historical Fiction. 

Cooke Steadfast. (Connecticut.) 

Cooper Wing on Wing. (French Privateer.) 

Eggleston Big Brother. (1812.) 

" Captain Sam. (1812.) 

" Signal Boys. (1812.) 

Hale Man without a Country. 

" Philip Nolan's Friends. (Louisiana.) 

Stowe Dred. (Slavery.) 

" Uncle Tom's Cabin. 

Trowbridge Lawrence's Adventures. (Inventions.) 

Historical Poetry. 

Lowell Biglow Papers. (Mexican and Civil War.) 

Whittier Voices of Freedom. 

CIVIL WAR. — Historical. 

Abbott Blue Jackets of '61. 

The Battlefields of '61. 

Blaisdell Stories of the Civil War. 

Champlin Young Folks' History of the War for the Union. 

Coffin Boys of '61. 



434 APPENDIX G. 

Coffin Drum-Beat of the Nation. 

" Following the Flag. 

« Freedom Triumphant. 

« Marching to Victory. 

" My Days and Nights on the Battlefield, 

« Redeeming the Republic. 

Drake Battle of Gettysburg. 

HiGGiNSON Army Life in a Black Regiment. 

LossiNG . Pictorial History of the Civil War. 

Nichols Story of the Great March. 

SoLEY Sailor Boys of '6i. 

Thayer Youth's History of the Civil War. 

Biographical. 

Adams Our Standard Bearer. (Grant.) 

Brooks Abraham Lincoln. 

Cooke General Lee. 

Grant Memoirs. 

Headley Fighting Phil. (Sheridan.) 

" Young Folks' Heroes of the Rebellion. 

KiEFFER Recollections of a Drummer-Boy. 

Abraham Lincoln. (World's Worker Series. 

Morse Abraham Lincoln. 

Randolph Stonewall Jackson. 

Stowe Self-made Men. 

Thayer Abraham Lincoln. 

Historical Fiction. 

Alcott Hospital Sketches. 

Coffin Winning his Way. 

Cooke Hilt to Hilt. 

Cooke Mohum. 

" Wearing of the Gray. 

Davis In War Times. 

Goss Jed. 

Henty With Lee in Virginia. 

HosMER Cotor Guard. 

Trowbridge .... Coupon Bonds. 
" .... Cudjo's Cave. 

•» .... Three Scouts. 

Historical Poetry. 

Browne Bugle Echoes. 

Moore Lyrics of Loyalty. 

" Rebel Rhymes and Rhapsodies. 

White Poetry of the Civil War. 

Whittier In War Times. 



TABLE OF THE PRESIDENTS. 



435 





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INDEX. 



(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



Abercrombie, James, in command, 150. 

Abernethy, George, governor of Oregon, 485. 

Abolition agitation, 515. 

Acadia, expedition against, 146. 

Adams, John, life of, 417 «; opposes Stamp 
Act, 211; defends British soldiers, 218; 
in the Continental Congress, 236, 263; 
favors independence, 276; peace com- 
missioner, 365; signs Treaty of Paris, 367; 
and George III., 366 «; elected Vice- 
President, 400; re-elected, 4.09; elected 
President, 413; inauguration of, 415; not 
re-elected, 422; death of, 464; state 
papers of, 737. 

Adams, J. Q., life of, 463 «; elected Presi- 
dent, 452; not re-elected, 467; upholds 
the right of petition, 517. 

Adams, Samuel, life of, 231 «; opposes 
Stamp Act, 21 1; proposes Continental 
Congress, 232; member of, 236, 263; 
foresees independence, 240. 

Agassiz, Louis, scientist, 744. 

Agriculture in the colonies, 169, 170; in 
1789, 393; in 1825, 457; in 1896, 767. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 141. 

Alabama, admission of, 447; history and 
industries of, 449 «; secession of, 535. 

" Alabama " claims, 656. 

Alaska, purchase of, 652; seals in, 700. 

Albany, settlement of, 71; before the Revo- 
lution, 166. 

Albemarle, Duke of, 88. 

Albemarle, settlement at, 87. 

Alcott, A. B., philosopher, 742. 

Algonquin Indians, 103. 

Alien laws, 419. 

Allen, Ethan, at Ticonderoga, 250. 

AUston, Washington, artist, 746. 

Almont, William, treason of, 286 n. 

Alton riots, 518. 

Amendments to the United States Consti- 
tution, 389; Thirteenth, 644; Fourteenth, 
648; Fifteenth, 667. 

America, origin of the name, 10; bounda- 
ries of, 1763, 159. 

American Colonization Society, 513. 



American party formed, 528. 

American Society for the Promotion of 
Temperance, 505. 

" American System," 463. 

Amherst, Lord, in command, 15 1; at Ti- 
conderoga, 154. 

Amsterdam, Pilgrims at, 50. 

Amusements in the colonies, 198. 

Anarchists, 684. 

Anderson, Robert, 550. 

Andre, John, interview with Arnold, 348; 
arrest of, 349. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, governor of New Eng- 
land and New York, 190. 

Annapolis, Md., settlement of, 77; before 
the Revolution, 166; convention at, 378. 

Annawan and Captain Church, 117. 

Antietam, battle of, 591. 

Anti-Mason party, 473 n. 

Anti-Nebraska party, 525. 

Anti-slavery, petitions, 404, 517; societies, 
516; later movements, 518. 

Apache Indians, 103. 

Appalache Indians, 103. 

Appomattox, surrender at, 626. 

Aquidnec, R. L, settlement at, 67. 

Arbuthnot, Marriot, British admiral, 341. 

Arista, Mariano, at the Rio Grande, 489. 

Arkansas, admission of, 475; history and 
industries of, 475 n; secession of, 554. 

Army, enrollment in, 638; review of, 639; 
disbandment of, 640. 

Arnold, Benedict, at Fort Ticonderoga, 250; 
at Quebec, 270; at Fort Schuyler, 305; at 
Bemis Heights, 309; early life of, 346; 
plans to betray West Point, 348; escape 
of, 350; character of, 351; a British offi- 
cer, 353; subsequent life, 354. 

Arthur, C. A., life of, 681 n; elected Vice- 
President, 676; becomes President, 677. 

Articles of Confederation, ratified, 371; 
weakness of, 373; efforts to amend, 376. 

Ashburton treaty, 482. 

Ashe, John, at Brier Creek, 337. 

Astoria, settlement of, 485. 

Atlanta, capture of, 619. 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



439 



Atlantic cable, 649 n. 

Audubon, J. J., naturalist, 744. 

Augusta, Ga., occupation of, 336; attack 

upon, 342; capture of, 358. 
Australian ballot, 697. 
Austria-Hungary, emigration from, 752. 
Avalon, settlement at, 75. 
Aztec Indians, 103. 



Baker, E. D., death of, 562. 

Balboa, discovery by, 1 1. 

Ballot reform, 770. 

Ball's Bluff, battle of, 562. 

Baltimore, Lord, 75. 

Baltimore, settlement of, 77; centre of popu- 
lation in 1790, 391; bloodshed at, 552. 

I^ancroft, George, historian, 743. 

Bank of the United States, 402; second, 472. 

Banks, Nathaniel P., in the Shenandoah 
valley, 582; driven out of the valley, 586; 
at Port Hudson, 608. 

Baptists in Rhode Island, 183. 

Barcelona, Columbus at, 8 n. 

Barnard, Thomas, at Salem, 242. 

Barton, William, captures Prescott, 290 n. 

Baum, Friedrich, at Bennington, 303. 

Beauregard, G. T., at Fort Sumter, 550; at 
Bull Run, 559; at Corinth, 569; at Shiloh, 
570; retreats from Corinth, 571. 

Beecher, Henry Ward, life of, 600 n. 

Bell, A. G., inventor, 762. 

Bell, John, candidate for President, 533 n. 

Belmont, battle of, 564. 

Bemis Heights, battle of, 309. 

Benevolence, 759, 760. 

Bennington, battle of, 303. 

Bering Sea case, 700. 

Berkeley, Lord, proprietor of West Jersey, 
84; proprietor of Carolina, 88. 

Berlin decree, 429. 

Bermuda Islands, 43. 

Beverly, Mass., cotton mills at, 458. 

Big Horn, battle of, 658. 

" Black List," 673. 

Blaine, J. G., Hfe of, 685 «; candidate for 
President, 682; Secretary of State, 694. 

"Bland Silver Bill," 691. 

Block Island, Endicott at, no. 

Blockade of southern ports, 557. 

"Bon Homme Richard," 334. 

Bond issues, 705. 

Booth J. W., assassinates Lincoln, 629. 

" Border War " in Kansas, 524. 

Boscawen, Edward, British admiral, 151. 

Boston, settlement of, 60; before the Revo- 
lution, 166; British troops in, 216; Mas- 
sacre, 217; and the tea tax, 220; meeting 
ip the Old South, 223; Tea Parly, 224; 



town meeting of, 231 ; Neck fortified, 1241 ; 
siege of, begun, 248; winter of 1775 in, 
267; evacuation of, 268; fire in, 662. 

Boston " News Letter " pul)lished, 176. 

Boston Port Bill, 228. 

Bowditch, Nathaniel, mathematician, 744. 

Bowdoin, James, 234. 

Bowling Green, fortifications at, 565; evac- 
uated, 569. 

" Boycott," 673. 

Braddock, Edward, in command, 145; de- 
feat of, 147. 

Bradford, William, governor of Plymouth, 
55; history by, 50 n. 

Bradstreet, John, at Frontenac, 152. 

Bragg, Braxton, at Stone River, 573; at 
Chickamauga, 609; at Missionary Ridge, 
610; at Lookout Mountain, 611. 

Brandywine, battle of, 298. 

Bread riots, 478. 

Breckinridge, J. C, 528, 533. 

Breed's Hill fortified, 253. 

Brewster, William, elder, 52, 55. 

Brier Creek, battle of, 337. 

British " Orders in Council," 429. 

Brock, Sir Isaac, at Detroit, 436. 

Brooklyn bridge, the, 682 n. 

Brooks, P. S., attacks Sumner, 526. 

Brown, John, raid of,. 532. 

Bryan, WilHam J., 706, 728. 

Bryant, W. C, poet, 741. 

Buchanan, Franklin, at Mobile Bay, 623. 

Buchanan, James, life of, 529 «; elected 
President, 528; attitude towards secession, 

537- 
Buckner, S. B., at Fort Donelson, 568. 
Buell, D. C, at Shiloh, 570. 
Buena Vista, battle of, 491. 
Bull Run, first battle of, 559; second battle 

of, 590. 
Bunker Hill, battle of, 253-262. 
Burgoyne, John, prepares expedition, 302; 

critical condition of, 306; at Stillwater, 

307; at Bemis Heights, 309; surrender 

of, 311. 
Burke, Edmund, supports the colonies, 230. 
Burnside, A. E., in command, 592; at ¥xtd- 

ericksburg, 593; in North Carolina, 596; 

at Knoxville, 612. 
Burr, Aaron, at Quebec, 269; elected Vice- 
President, 422; plot of, 431 n. 
Butler, B. F„ at New Orleans, 574; at 

Hatteras Inlet, 596. 
Butler, W. O., candidate for Vice-President, 

499. 
Buzzard's Bay visited by Gosnold, 30. 

Cabot, John, discovers North America, 9. 
Cabot, Sebastian, ^. 



440 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



Calhoun, John C, life of, 472 «; leads the 
war party, 434; elected Vice-President, 
452; opposes the Tariff of Abomination, 
465; re-elected Vice-President, 467; sen- 
ator, 469 ; death of, 504. 

California, conquest of, 492; applies for 
admission, 500 ; admission of, 502; his- 
tory and industries of, 503 11. 

Calvert, Cecil, proprietor of Maryland, 76. 

Calvert, Sir George, life of, 75 n; names the 
colony Maryland, 76. 

Cambridge, headquarters of colonial army, 
247; Burgoyne's army at, 311. 

Camden, attack on, 342; battle of, 344. 

Campbell, William, at Augusta, 336; at 
King's Mountain, 345. 

Canada, Americans driven from, 291 ; in- 
vasion of, 181 2, 436. 

Canary Isles, Columbus at, 8. 

Canby, E. R. S., receives surrender of Taylor, 
627. 

Cano completes voyage around the world, 
12. 

Cape Ann visited by Gosnold, 30; fishing 
colony at, 57. 

Cape Charles named, 38. 

Cape Fear, settlement at, 87. 

Cape Henry named, 38. 

Cape of Good Hope, discovery of, 5. 

Capitol burned, 1814, 441. 

Carolana named, 19; granted by Charles I., 
86. 

Carolina, colony of, 88; Church of England 
in, 179. 

" Carpet Baggers," 668. 

Carteret, Sir George, 84. 

Carthage, battle of, 564. 

Cartier, James, settles Montreal, 17 122. 

Carver, John, governor at Plymouth, 55. 

Cass, Lewis, candidate for President, 499. 

Cedar Creek, battle of, 617. 

Centennial Exhibition, 663. 

Central Pacific Railroad, 659. 

Cerro Gordo, battle of, 494. 

Cervera, Admiral, 716-718. 

Chadd's Ford, on the Brandyvvine, 298. 

Chambers, B. J., 676. 

Champe, John, and Arnold, 352. 

Champlain explores Canada, 125. 

Champlain, Lake, battle of, 440. 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 594. 

Chapultepec, capture of, 495. 

Charles IX., favors the Huguenots, 18. 

Charleston, settlement of, 88; before the 
Revolution, 166; attack on, 340 ; besieged 
by the British, 341; surrender of, 342; 
evacuation of, 627. 

Charlestown, settlement of, 59; burning of, 
258, 261. 



Charlotte, Va., Burgoyne's army at, 311. 

Charter colonies, 185. 

Charters, removal of, 191. 

Chase, S. P., life of, 633 «; Secretary of the 
Treasury, 631. 

Cherokee Indians, 103; in Georgia, 462. 

Cherry Valley, N. Y., massacres at, 325. 

" Chesapeake " and " Leopard," 429 n. 

" Chesapeake " and " Shannon," 438. 

Chester, Pa., settlement of, 96- American 
army at, 299. 

Chicago, fire in, 662. 

Chickamauga, battle of. 609. 

Chihuahua, capture of, 492. 

Chile, difficulties with, 695. 

Chinese immigration, 687. 

Chippewa, battle of, 440. 

Church of England, in the colonies, 179. 

Church, Benjamin, and King PhiHp, 1 1 7. 

Cities, 399. 

Civil Service Reform, 672, 679, 683, 770. 

Civil War, results of, 643. 

Clarendon, Earl of, proprietor of Carolina, 
88. 

Clark, Sir James, death of, 309. 

Clark G. R., life of, 325 n; in the northwest, 
326, 327. 

Classes in the colonies, 167. 

Clatsop Indians, 103. 

Clay, Henry, life of, 513 «; Speaker of the 
House, 434; proposes the Missouri Com- 
promise 448; candidate for President, 
452, 472, 487; Secretary of State, 463; 
proposes Compromise Tariff, 470; pro- 
poses Compromise of 1850, 501; death 
of, 504. 

Cleaveland, Benjamin, at King's Mountain, 

345- 

" Clermont," trial trip of, 456. 

Cleveland, Grover, life of, 699 n; elected 
President, 682; not re-elected, 688; 
elected President 698; Venezuelan mes- 
sage of. 703 ; and Cuba, 711. 

Clinton, De Witt, candidate for President, 
444. 

Clinton, George, in tht Continental Con- 
gress, 263; elected Vice-President, 432. 

Clinton, Sir Henry, arrival of, 282; succeeds 
Howe, 322; at Monmouth, 323; at Spring- 
field, 332; at Charleston, 340; in New 
York, 367. 

" Clinton's Big Ditch," 457 n. 

Coasting trade, 395. 

Cole, Thomas, artist, 746. 

Colfax, Schuyler, elected Vice-President, 

654- 
Coligny, Gaspard de, life of, 18 «; aids the 

Huguenots, 123. 
Colleges before 1763, 175; in 1896, 756. 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



441 



Colonial government, 187; population, 200. 
Colonies taxed by Parliament, 214. 
Colonization schemes, 513. 
Colorado, admission of, 660; history and 

industries of, 660 n. 
Columbia, S. C, capture of, 627, 
Columbia College founded, 175. 
"Columbia " and " Merrimac," 578. 
Columbia River explored, 427. 
Columbus, Christopher, early life of, 6; 

preparations of, 7; discovers Guanahani, 

8; later life of, 8 «. 
Columbus, fortifications at, 565; evacuated, 

569- 

•Comanche Indians, 103. 

Commerce, in the colonies, 171 ; in 1789, 
395; in 1902, 764; interstate, 686. 

Committees of Correspondence, 231. 

Compromise, of 1850, 502; Tariff, 470. 

Conant, Roger, at Naumkeag, 57. 

Concord, battle of, 245. 

Confederate States of America, formed, 536; 
granted belligerent powers, 577. 

Congress, proclaims a national thanksgiving, 
363; under the Articles of Confederation, 
374; calls the Federal Convention, 379. 

Congress, powers of, 386; first and second, 
407; summoned by Lincoln, 555 - 

" Congress " and " Merrimac," 578. 

Connecticut, colony of, 64; Constitution, 
64 w; charter received, 65; charter col- 
ony, 185; steps toward independence, 
275; British raids in, 329. 

Constantinople, fall of, 5, 

Constitution of the United States, 383-389. 

'* Constitution " and " Guerriere," 437. 

Constitutional Union Party, formed, 533 «. 

Continental Congress, first, 232; meets at 
Philadelphia, 235; work of, 237, 238; 
second, 263; work of, 264; passes the 
Declaration of Independence, 277; rati- 
fies treaty with France, 314; refuses com- 
promise, 315; a revolutionary body, 372. 

"Contract Labor Act," 752. 

Convention, at Annapolis, 378; the Federal, 
380-382. 

Conway Cabal, 320. 

Cooper, J. F., novelist, 740. 

Cooper, Lord Ashley, proprietor of Caro- 
lina, 88. 

Copley, J. S., artist, 746. 

Corinth, held by Confederates, 569; held by 
the Union army, 571 ; battle of, 572. 

Cornwallis, Lord, at New York, 282; at 
Princeton, 294; enters Philadelphia, 299; 
at Guilford Court House, 357; marches 
northward, 358; in Virginia, 359; at York- 
town, 361 ; surrender of, 362. 

Cotton production, increase of, 398. 



Cotton-gin, invention of, 396-398; effect on 
slavery, 510. 

Council of Plymouth formed, 36. 

Courts of the United States, 388. 

Cowpens, battle of, 356. 

Crawford, Thomas, sculptor, 747. 

Crawford, W. II., 434, 452. 

"Credit Mobilier," 665. 

Creeks in Georgia, 462. 

Crown Point, built, 140; capture of, 154, 
291. 

Cuba, discovered, 8; De Soto, governor of, 
14; conditions in, 709-71 1; independ- 
ence recognized, 713; war in, 714, 716- 
719; republic of, 734. 

Cumberland Gap fortified, 565. 

" Cumberland Road," 455. 

Custer, G. A., death of, 658. 

Cuttyhunk, Gosnold at, 30. 

Dakota, history and industries of, 691 «. 

Dakota Indians, 103. 

Dallas, battle of, 618. 

Dallas, G. M., elected Vice-President, 487. 

Dalton, battle of, 618. 

Danish West Indies, 733. 

Dare, Virginia, birth of, 29. 

Darien, Balboa at, 11. 

Davenport, John, at New Haven, 65. 

Davis, Isaac, death of, 245. 

Davis, Jefferson, life of, 536;/; elected 
President of the Confederate States, 536; 
flees from Richmond, 625; capture of, 
630. 

Dayton, W. L., 528. 

Deane, Silas, signs treaty, 314. 

Debt of the United States, 641. 

Decatur, Stephen, and the " Philadelphia," 
428 n. 

Declaration of Independence, 279. 

Deerfield, Mass., massacres at, 115, 139. 

D'Estaing, Count, arrives, 316; attack by, 
328; at Savannah, 339. 

De Grasse, Count, in the Chesapeake, 360; 
receives the surrender of the fleet, 362. 

De Kalb, Baron, death of, 344. 

Delaware, Lord, Sir Thomas West, 43. 

Delaware, conquest of, 73, 81 ; Dutch set- 
tlements at, 79; Swedish settlements in, 
81; an English colony, 82; a proprietary 
colony, 186. 

Delft-Haven, Pilgrims sail from, 52; part- 
ing at, S3 «. 
''Demonetization" of silver, 691. 

Democratic i)arty formed, 464. 

Democratic-Republican party formed, 403. 
Deposits removed, 474. 
Derby, John, in the navy, 247. 
Detroit, surrender of, 436. 



442 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



Dewey, George, 715, 721. 

Diaz, Bartolomeo, 5. 

Dickinson, John, in the Continental Con- 
gress, 236; opposes independence, 276, 

Dingley, Nelson, 707. 

Doniphan, A. W., in New Mexico, 492. 

Dorchester Company formed, 58. 

Dorchester Heights fortified, 268. 

Dorchester moves to Connecticut, 64. 

Dorr Rebellion, 486. 

Dorr, T. W., in Rhode Island, 486. 

Douglas, S. A., life of, 524 n; proposes the 
Kansas-Nebraska Act, 521; debates with 
Lincoln, 531; candidate for President, 

533. 

Dover, N. H., 62, 136. 

Drake, Sir Francis, voyages of, 15; at Roa- 
noke Island, 28. 

Dred .Scott decision, 529. 

Dress in the colonies, 192. 

Duddington, William, 219. 

Du Pont, P. S., at Port Royal, 596. 

Durand, A. B., artist, 746. 

Dustin, Hannah, story of, 135 n. 

Dutch immigrants, 165. 

Dutch Lutheran Church, 179. 

Dutch Reformed Church, 179. 

Eads, Capt. James B,, 675. 

East Jersey, colony of, 84. 

Edison, T. A., inventor, 762, 

Edmunds' "Anti-Polygamy Law," 678. 

Education, in the colonies, 174; in 1825, 
460; in 1896,755; higher, 756. 

Electoral Commission, 670. 

Electoral Count Bill, 685. 

Electors, Presidential, duties of, 387. 

Eliot, John, mission to the Indians, 107. 

Elizabeth Islands named, 30. 

Elizabeth, Queen, and Raleigh, 27. 

Elizabethtown, N. J., settlement of, 85. 

Elkton, British at, 297. 

Ellsworth, Oliver, 381. 

Emancipation, 644. 

Emancipation Proclamations, 600. 

Embargo Act passed, 431. 

Emerson, R. W., philosopher, 742. 

Emigrant Aid Society, 523. 

Emigrant trains, 459 11. 

Endicott Charter, 57 n. 

Endicott, John, at Naumkeag, 58; at Block 
Island, 1 10. 

England, Columbus seeks aid from, 7; in 
the sixteenth century, 31 ; and the North- 
west forts, 41 1; recognizes the Confed- 
erate States as belligerents, 577, 598. 

England's repressive policy, 203. 

Englishand French possessions, 133. 

English colonization begins, 24. 



English immigrants, 165. 

English, W. H., candidate for Vice-Presi- 
dent, 676. 

" Enterprise," voyage of the, 456. 

Equal representation in the senate, 514. 

" Era of good feeling," 445. 

Ericsson, John, life of, 580 «; invents the 
" Monitor," 579. 

Erie, battle of Lake, 439. 

" Essex," cruise of the, 438. 

Eutaw Springs, battle of, 358. 

Evans, N. G., at Ball's Bluff, 562. 

Ewell, R. S., reinforces Jackson, 586; at 
Gettysburg, 603, 

Executive powers of the United States, 387. 

Explorers, French, 129. 

Exports, from the colonies, 171 ; in 1763, 
201; in 1789, 395. 

Fair Oaks, battle of, 587. 

Faneuil Hall, town meetings in, 178; ac- 
count of, 222 n. 

Farms, small, ni the colonies, 170. 

Farragut, D. G., life of, 572 n; on the Mis- 
sissippi, 574; at Mobile Bay, 623. 

Federal Convention, 380-382. 

Federalist party formed, 403. 

Fenians in Canada, 653. 

Ferdinand, King of Spain, 7. 

Ferguson, Patrick, at King's Mountain, 345. 

Fernandina, capture of, 596. 

Fifteenth Amendment, 667. 

" Fifty-four forty or fight," 485. 

Fillmore, Millard, life of, 500 «; elected 
Vice-President, 499; candidate for Presi- 
dent, 528; becomes President, 504. 

Fisheries question, 657. 

Fisher's Hill, battle of, 617. 

Five Forks, capture of, 624. 

Five Nations in King William's War, 137. 

Flat Head Indians, 103. 

Florida, discovery of, 13; loss of, 23; ces- 
sion of, 160; purchase of, 446; admission 
of, 484; history and industries of, 484 n; 
secession of, 535. 

Floyd, John, candidate for President, 472. 

Floyd, J. B.,- escapes from Fort Donelson, 
568. 

Food in the colonies, 195. 

Foote, A. H., at Fort Henry, 567; at Island 
No. 10, 572. 

"Force Bill" of 1832,470. 

Fort Amsterdam built, 73. 

Fort Carolana built, 123. 

Fort Caroline, built, 20; capture of, 22. 

Fort Christina built, 81. 

Fort Cornwallis, capture of, 358. 

Fort Donelson, fortified, 565; capture of, 
568. 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



443 



Fort Du Quesne, built, 143; burned, 153. 

Fort Edward garrisoned, 148. 

Fort Frontenac, capture of, 152. 

Fort Granby, capture of, 358. 

P'ort Griswold, capture of, 353. 

Fort Henry, fortified, 565; capture of, 567. 

Fort Lee fortified, 283. 

Fort McAllister, capture of, 622. 

Fort Mc Henry, victory at, 441. 

Fort Marion, capture of, 596. 

Fort Mott, capture of, 358. 

Fort Moultrie, battle of, 340 n. 

Fort Niagara, built, 140; capture of, 154. 

Fort Ontario, capture of, 149. 

Fort Pemaquid, capture of, 136. 

Fort Pillow, fortified, 565; evacuated, 572. 

Fort Pitt built, 153. 

Fort Pulaski, capture of, 596. 

Fort Saybrook, attack upon, 109. 

Fort Schuyler, attack upon, 304; relief of, 

305- 

Fort Sumter, surrender of, 550; effect of 
capture of, 552. 

Fort Ticonderoga, attack upon, 152; capture 
of, 154. 

Fort Washington, fortified, 283; capture of, 
286. 

Fort William Henry, built, 148; capture 
of, 150. 

Fortress Monroe, McClellan at, 582. 

Forts in the Northwest, 411. 

Fourteenth Amendment, 648. 

France, in America, 120; shut out of North 
America, 160; versus England, 1 31-162; 
negotiations with, 313; alliance with, 314; 
fleet of, 316; Revolution in, 410; danger 
of war with, 416; treaty with, 418; emi- 
gration from, 457, 752; recognizes the 
Confederate States as belligerents, 577, 
598. 

Francis I. and Verrazano, 16. 

Franklin, Benjamin, life of, 144 «; in the 
Continental Congress, 263; signs treaty 
with France, 314; peace commissioner, 
365; signs Treaty of Paris, 367; and the- 
" Rising Sun," 381 n; in the Federal Con 
vention, 381 ; and the lightning, 762. 

Franklin, battle of, 621. 

Frazer, Simon, death of, 309. 

Frazer's Farm, battle of, 588. 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 593. 

Freed men after the Civil War, 646. 

Freedom, religious, 183, 461, 758. 

Freeman's Farm, battle of, 307. 

Free Soil party formed, 498. 

Frelinghuysen, Theodore, candidate for Vice- 
President, 487. 

Fremont, J. C., in California, 492; candi- 
date for President, 528; in Missouri, 564. 



French Alliance, reception of the news of, 

321 «. 
French and Indian War, 142-162. 
French explorers, 129. 
French hopes in America, 132. 
French Huguenot immigrants, 165. 
French in the west, 140. 
Friends, 94, 182. 

Frobisher, Martin, visits Labrador, 25. 
" Frolic," " Wasp " and, 437. 
Fugitive Slave Law, 503, 
Furniture in the colonies, 194. 



Gadsuen, Christopher, in the Continental 

Congress, 236. 
'• Gag Law," 517. 
Gage, Thomas, governor of Massachusetts 

Bay, 228; sends troops to Salem, 241 ; 

sends troops to Concord, 243. 
Gaines' Mills, battle of, 588. 
Gama, da, voyage to India, 5. 
Garfield, J. A., Hfe of, 681 n; elected Presi- 
dent, 676; and the Spoils System, 677; 

assassination of, 677. 
Garrison, WilUam L., and abolition, 515. 
" Gaspee," burning of the, 219. 
Gates, Horatio, at Bemis Heights, 309; at 

Camden, 344; succeeded by Greene, 355. 
Gates, Sir Thomas, in Virginia, 43. 
Genevan Awards, 656. 
Genoa, trade with the East, 5; birthplace 

of Columbus, 6; Columbus seeks help 

from, 7. 
George HI., of England, 226; and John 

Adams, 366 n. 
Georgetown, capture of, 358. 
Georgia, colony of, 92; Indians in, 462; 

secession of, 535; readmission of, 649. 
Germantown, battle of, 299. 
Germany, emigration from, 165, 457. 
Gerry, Elbridge, in the Federal Convention, 

381; envoy to France, 417; elected Vice- 
President, 444. 
Gettysburg, battle of, 602-606. 
Ghent, treaty of, 443. 
Giddings, J. R., from Ohio, 518, 
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, at Newfoundland, 

26. 
Gilmore, Q. A., at Fort Pulaski, 596. 
Girard, C. A., French ambassador, 316. 
Gold, discovery of, 503 n. 
Gold reserve, 705. 

Goldsboro, L. M., at Roanoke Island, 596. 
(ioldslioro, N. C, surrender at, 627. 
(ioodyear, Charles, inventor, 762. 
Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 32; sends out the 

Popham colony, 36; life of, 62 n; receives 

grant of land, 62. 



444 



INDEX. 



(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



Gosnold, Bartholomew, at Buzzard's Bay, 
30; member of the Virginia Company, 
32; sails for Virginia, 37; death of, 41. 

Gourgues, Dominic de, avenges the Hugue- 
nots, 23. 

Government bonds issued, 599. 

Graham, W. A., candidate for Vice-Presi- 
dent, 506. 

Grant, U. S., life of, 656 «; at Belmont, 
564; at Fort Henry, 567; at Fort Donel- 
son, 568; at Shiloh, 570; at Vicksburg, 
607, at Missionary RicTge, 610; at Look- 
out Mountain, 6[i; made Lieutenant- 
General, 613; in the Wilderness, 614; at 
Petersburg, 615; elected President, 654; 
re-elected President, 666. 

Gray, Asa, botanist, 744. 

Great Britain, emigration from, 752. 

Great Northern Railroad, 659. 

Great Swamp fight, 116. 

Great West, industries of, 750, 751. 

Greeley, Horace, candidate for President, 
666. 

Greenback party formed, 676. 

" Greenbacks," issue of, 599, 674. 

Greene, Nathaniel, life of, 355 «; of Rhode 
Island, 248; at Brooklyn, 283; at Ger- 
mantown, 300; at Newport, 328; at 
Springfield, 332; succeeds Gates, 355; 
at Guilford Court House, 357; at Eutaw 
Springs, 358. 

Greenland, discovery of, 3. 

Greenough, Horatio, sculptor, 747. 

Groton, battle of, in. 

Guadalupe Hidalgo, treaty of, 497. 

Guam, 725 71. 

Guanahani, discovery of, 8. 

" Guerriere," " Constitution " and, 437. 

Guiana, exploration of, 27 ;/. 

Guilford Court House, l)attle of, 357. 

Gustavus Adolphus, life of, 79 n. 

Guyot, Arnold, geographist, 744. 



Hakluyt, Richard, 32. 

Hale, J. P., candidate for President, 506. 

Hale, Nathan, life of, 284;/. 

Halleck, H. W., in Missouri, 564; in com- 
mand of the army, 571. 

Hamilton, Alexander, life of, 409;/; at 
Annapolis, 378; in the Federal Conven- 
tion, 381; secretary of the treasury 401, 
409; leader of the Federalist party, 403; 
resigns, 410; state papers of, 737. 

Hamilton, Henry, governor of Detroit, 327. 

Hamlin, Hannibal, 533. 

Hampton Roads, fleet at, 578. 

Hancock, John, president of Massachusetts, 
234. 



Hancock, W. S., candidate for President, 
676. 

Hand, Samuel, philanthropist, 760. 

Hanging Rock, battle of, 343. 

Hanover Court House, battle of, 585. 

Harlem Heights, army at, 285. 

Harmer, Josiah, and the Indians, 406. 

Harper's Ferry, John Brown at, 532; Banks 
at, 586. 

Harrison, Benjamin, in the Continental 
Congress, 236. 

Harrison, Benjamin, life of, 689 w; elected 
President, 688; not re-elected, 698. 

Harrison, W. H., life of, 483;/; at Tippe- 
canoe, 434; at the Thames, 439; candidate 
for President, 476; elected President, 480; 
death of, 481. 

Harrison's Landing, army at, 589. 

Hartford, settlement of, 64; convention, 
442. 

Hartley, David, peace commissioner, 367. 

Harvard College, founded, 175; homespun 
suits worn at, 211. 

Hatteras Inlet, capture of, 596. 

Haverhill, Mass., massacre at, 137. 

Hawaii, 722. 

Hawley, Joseph, and independence, 240, 

275- 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, novelist, 740. 

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, 732. 

Hayes, R. B., life of, 672?/; elected Presi- 
dent, 669; inauguration of, 671. 

Hayne, R. Y., Webster and, 468; governor 
of South Carolina, 469. 

Hazen, W. B., at Stone River, 573. 

Heights of Abraham, battle of, 157. 

Heister, L. P. von, at New York, 282. 

Hendricks, T. A., candidate for Vice-Presi- 
dent, 682; elected Vice-President, 682. 

Hennepin, Louis, explorations of, 129. 

Henry, Patrick, life of, 239;/; opposes 
Stamp Act, 211, 212 «; in the Conti- 
nental Congress, 236, 263; foresees inde- 
pendence, 240. 

Henry VII. sends out Cabot, 9. 

Henry VIII. becomes a Protestant, 24. 

Hessians, German mercenaries, 282. 

Higginson, John, teacher at Salem, 59. 

High license, 761. 

Higher education, 756. 

Hildreth, Richard, historian, 743. 

Hill, A. P., at Gettysburg, 603. 

Hispaniola, Columbus ruler of, 8 n. 

Hobkirk Hill, battle of, 357. 

Hobson, Richmond P., 717. 

Hoch-e-laga discovered by Cartier, 17. 

Hoe, R. M., inventor, 762. 

Holland, 50, 69. 

Holmes, O. W., poet, 741. 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



445 



Hood, J. B., evacuates Atlanta, 619; in- 
vades Tennessee, 621. 

Hooker, Joseph, at Williamsburg, 584; in 
command, 593; at Chancellorsville, 594; 
superseded, 602; at Lookout Mountain, 
611. 

Hopkins, Esek, in command of fleet, 291. 

Hopkins, Stephen, 236. 

Houses in the colonies, 193. 

Houston, Samuel, in Texas, 483. 

Howard, O. O., at Gettysljurg, 603, 

Howe, Elias, inventor, 762. 

Howe, Richard, arrives at New York, 282. 

Howe, Rol)ert, at Savannah, 336. 

Howe, William, in command, 255 ; evacuates 
Boston, 268; arrives at New York, 282; 
captures Fort Washington, 286; outgen- 
eralled by Washington, 296; sails for 
Philadelphia, 297; at Philadelphia, 317; 
succeeded by Clinton, 322. 

Hudson, Henry, makes exploration in Amer- 
ica, 70. 

Hudson River explored by Hudson, 70. 

Huguenots, persecuted in France, 18; settle 
French Florida, 19; massacred by Men- 
endez, 22. 

Hull, William, surrenders Detroit, 436. 

Hunt, Robert, member of the Virginia 
Company, 32. 

Hunter, David, in command, 564. 

Hutchinson, Anne, banished from Massa- 
chusetts, 67. 

Iceland discovered by Northmen, 3. 

Idaho, admission of, 689; history and in- 
dustries of, 694 n. 

Illinois, admission of, 447; history and in- 
dustries of, 449 n. 

Immigration, into the colonies, 165; early, 
457; later, 687, 752, 753; question, 770. 

Implements in the colonies, 196. 

Imports into the colonies, 171 ; in 1763, 
201; in 1789, 395. 

Independence Hall, 382. 

" Independent Treasury," 479. 

India, trade with, 5. 

Indian characteristics, 98; mound builders, 
98; features, 99; mental and moral traits, 
loo; employments, loi; women, 102; 
tribes, 103; warfare, 106; Bible, 107. 

Indiana, admission of, 444; history and 
industries of, 443 n. 

Indians, numbers of, 104; and white men, 
105; defeat Harmer, 406; defeat St. 
Clair, 406; in Georgia, 462; in the 
Northwest, 658. 

Industries, in the colonies, 169-172; in 1789, 
392; in 1825, 457, 458; in 1896, 749, 
751,762. 



Inness, George, artist, 746. 
International arbitration, 726. 
International Copyright Bill, 696. 
Interstate commerce, 686. 
Intolerable acts, 228. 
Inventions, 762. 

Iowa, admission of, 496; history and indus- 
tries of, 497 n. 
Ireland, emigration from, 457, 752. 
Iro(|uois Indians, 103. 
Irving, Washington, author, 739. 
Isal)ella, (^ueen, 7. 

Island No. 10, fortified, 565; capture of, 572. 
Isle of Jer'^ey, 84 n. 
Italy, emigration from, 752. 
luka, battle of, 572. 



Jackson, Andrew, life of, 468;/; at Hanging 
Rock, 343; at New Orleans, 443; in 
Florida, 446; candidate for President, 
452; elected President, 466; inauguration 
of, 467; re-elected President, 471 ; at- 
tacks the Bank, 472; removes the deposits, 

473- 

Jackson, C. F., governor of Missouri, 563. 

Jackson, T. J. (Stonewall), life of, 594 «; 
threatens Washington, 586; joins Lee, 
587; at Antietam, 591 ; death of, 594. 

James River named, 38. 

Jamestown, settlement of, 35, 38; before the 
Revolution, 166. 

Japan and Commodore Perry, 527. 

Jasper, William, death of, 339. 

" Java," " Constitution " and, 437. 

Jay, John, life of, 414 «; in the Continental 
Congress, 263; peace commissioner, 365; 
signs Treaty of Paris, 367; makes treaty 
with Great Britain, 412. 

Jefferson, Thomas, life of, 424 «; drafts the 
Declaration, 278; peace commissioner, 
365; Secretary of Foreign Affairs, 401 ; 
a party leader, 403; Secretary of State, 
409; resigns, 410; elected Vice-President, 
413; elected President, 422; inauguration 
of, 423; political views of, 424; re-elected 
President, 432; death of, 464; views on 
slavery, 509; state papers of, 737. 

Jeffrey's Ford, on the Brandywine, 298. 

Johnson, Andrew, life of, 642 n; elected 
Vice-President, 636; proclaims that the 
war is over, 637; and the Republicans, 
650; impeachment of, 651. 

Johnson, R. M., elected Vice-President, 476. 

Johnson, Sir William, at Crown Point, 148. 

Johnson, W. S., in the Federal Convention, 

381. 
Johnston, A. S., in command, 566; at Cor- 
inth, 569; death of, 570. 



446 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



Johnston, J. E., life of, 586 n; at Bull Run, 
559; at Fair Oaks, '587; at Vicksburg, 
608; superseded, 619; surrender of, 627. 

Joliet, Louis, explorations of, 129, 

Jones, Paul, life of, 334 «; defeats the 
" Serapis," 334. 

Judicial Power of the United States, 388. 

Julian Calendar, 55 n. 

Julian, G. W., candidate for Vice-President, 
506. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 521. 

Kansas, struggle for, 522; admission of, 530; 

history and industries of, 532 w. 
Kaskaskia, capture of, 326. 
Kearney, S. W., in New Mexico, 492. 
Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 618. 
Kennebec River, settlement on, 36. 
Kensett, J. F., artist, 746. 
Kentucky, admission of, 402; history and 

industries of, 405 n; remains in the Union, 

565. 
Kentucky resolutions, 420. 
Key, F. S., at Fort McHenry, 441 n. 
King George's War, 141. 
King Philip's War, 113, 114; war begun, 

115; first struggle, 117; cost of, 118; 

result of, 119. 
King, Rufus, candidate for Vice-President, 

432; candidate for President, 444. 
King, S. W., in Rhode Island, 486. 
King William's War, 136. 
King, W. R., elected Vice-President, 506. 
King's Mountain, battle of, 345. 
Knowlton, Thomas, in command, 256. 
" Know-Nothing" party formed, 528. 
Knox, Henry, Secretary of War, 401, 409; 

a party leader, 403. 
Knoxviile, battle of, 612. 
Knyphausen, Baron, in New Jersey, 332. 
Kosciusko, Tadeusz, fortifies West Point, 347. 
Koszta, Martin, account of, 527 n. 
Ku Klux Klan, 668. 

Labor troubles, 702; question, 770. 

Labrador, discovery of, 9; exploration of, 25. 

Lafayette, Marquis de, life of, 298;/; in 
command, 322; at Monmouth, 323; at 
Newport, 328; in Virginia, 359; at Wil- 
liamsburg, 360. 

Lake Champlain, control of, 252. 

Lake Erie, battle of, 439. 

Lake George, battle of, 148. 

La Place, Captain de, surrender of, 251. 

La Salle, Chevalier de, explorations, 128; at 
the mouth of the Mississippi, 131. 

Laudonniere, Rene de, builds Fort Caroline, 
20; on the St. Johns, 124. 



Laurens, Henry, peace commissioner, 365; 
signs treaty, 367. 

Laws of the colonies, 188. 

Lecompton Constitution, 530. 

Lee, Arthur, signs treaty, 314. 

Lee, Charles, in command, 266; capture of, 
290; at Monmouth, 323; disobedience 
of, 324; court martial of, 325. 

Lee, Henry, at Paulus Hook, 331 ; and the 
Whiskey Insurrection, 408. 

Lee, R. H., in the Continental Congress, 
236, 263; proposes independence, 276. 

Lee, R. E.,life of, 589 «; in command, 587; 
in the Seven Days' Battle, 588; at second 
Bull Run, 590; at Antietam, 591; at 
Fredericksburg, 593; at Chancellorsville, 
594; enters Pennsylvania, 602; at Gettys- 
burg, 603-606; retreat of, 606; in the 
Wilderness, 614; evacuates Richmond, 
625 ; surrender of, 626. 

Legislative powers of the United States, 385. 

Leif Ericson, discovery by, 4. 

Leon, Ponce de, discovery by, 13. 

Leslie, Col., at Salem, 241. 

Lewis and Clark's expedition, 427. 

Lexington, Mass., battle of, 244; retreat 
from, 246. 

Lexington, Mo., capture of, 564. 

Leyden, Pilgrims at, 50. 

" Liberator," the, established, 525. 

Liberty party formed, 519. 

Liliuokalani, Queen, deposed, 722. 

Lincoln, Abraham, life of, 550;/; and 
Douglas debates, 531; elected President, 
533; inauguration of, 548; issues calls for 
troops, 553; summons Congress, 555; 
blockades the South, 557; issues emanci- 
pation proclamation, 600; assassination 
of, 629; re-elected President, 636. 

Lincoln, Benjamin, in Georgia, 336; be- 
sieges Savannah, 338; at Charleston, 341 ; 
receives the sword of Cornwallis, 362. 

" Liquor limits," restriction of, 761. 

Literature, 736-745. 

Livingston, R. R., in the Continental Con- 
gress, 263; Minister to France, 426. 

Livingston, William, in the Federal Conven- 
tion, 381. 

" Local option," 761. 

Locke Constitution, 89. 

Logan, J. A., candidate for Vice-President, 
682. 

London Company, receives charter, 33; dis- 
solved, 35; sends out a colony, 37. 

Longfellow, H. W., poet, 741. 

Long Island, battle of, 283. 

Longstreet, James, in command, 558; be- 
sieges Suffolk, 595; at Knoxviile, 612. 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 61 1. 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



447 



Los Angeles, capture of, 492. 

Lost Mountain, battle of, 618. 

Loudon, Lord, in command, 149. 

Louisburg, capture of, 141 ; second capture 
of, 150. 

Louisiana, named, 131 ; cession of, 160; re 
cession of, 425; purchase of, 426; ad- 
mission of, 444; history and industries of, 
442 «; secession of, 535. 

Lovejoy, E. P., murder of, 518. 

Lowell, J. R., poet, 741. 

Loyalists, payment to the, 369. 

Lundy's Lane, battle of, 440. 

Lyon, Nathaniel, holds Missouri, 563; death 
of, 564. 



McClellan, G. B., in command, 560; drills 
the army, 561 ; in the Peninsula, 582; be- 
sieges Yorktovvn, 583; at Fair Oaks, 587; 
in the Seven Days' Battle, 588; at An- 
tietam, 591; candidate for President, 
636. 

McCulloch, Benjamin, at Carthage, 564. 

Macdonough, Thomas, on Lake Champlain, 
440. 

McDowell, Charles, at King's Mountain, 

345- 
^ McDowell, Irvin, in Virginia, 558; near 
Washington, 582 ; at Fredericksburg, 585. 

McKinley, William, 692, 706, 708 «, 711, 
713. 728, 730. 

"Macedonian," " United States " and, 437. 

Madison, James, life of, 434 n; in the Fed- 
eral Convention, 381 ; elected President, 
432; re-elected President, 444; State pa- 
pers of, 737. 

Magellan, voyage of, 12. 

Magellan, Straits of, 12. 

Magnetic telegraph, 486 n. 

Magruder, J, B., retreat of, 583. 

Maine, colony of, 63; timber exports from, 
171 ; admission of, 447; history and in- 
dustries of, 450 «; law, 506 n. 

"Maine," destruction of the, 712. 

Malbone, E. G., artist, 746. 

Malvern Hill, battle of, 588. 

Manassas, battle of, 559. 

Mangum, W. P., 476. 

Manhattan, settlement of, 71. 

Manila, battle of, 715; surrender of, 721. 

Manufactures, in the colonies, 173; in 1789, 
392; in 1825, 458; in 1896, 749, 751, 
762. 

Marion, Francis, partisan leader, 343; wins 
back the Carolinas, 358. 

Marquette, Jacques, explorations by, 127. 

Marshall, John, life of, 419 w; envoy to 
France, 417; Chief Justice, 417. 



Maryland, colony of, 76; character of colo- 
nists, 78; Puritan churches in, 180; re- 
ligious toleration in, 183; a proprietary 
colony, 186. 
Mason, James M., Confederate Commis- 
sioner, 576. 

Mason, John, receives grant of land, 62. 

Massachusetts, Puritan churches in, 180; 
Quakers in, 182; a charter colony, 185; 
General Court, 187; charter annulled, 
190; second charter granted, 191 ; As- 
sembly protests against the Acts of Parli- 
ament, 204; elects delegates to Continental 
Congress, 232, 236; Provincial Congress 
of, 233; seal, 233 n; raises an army, 234; 
towns declare for independence, 275; 
regiment attacked in Baltimore, 553. 

Massachusetts Act, the, 228. 

Massachusetts Bay company, formed, 59; 
company moves to America, 60; first 
years at, 61 ; schools in, 174. 

Mawhood, Col., at Princeton, 294. 

Maximilian in Mexico, 652. 

Maxwell, William, at Springfield, 332. 

Mayflower Compact, 54. 

Meade, G. G., in command, 602; at Gettys- 
burg, 603. 

Mechanicsville, battle of, 588. 

Mecklenburg Declaration, 271. 

Mediterranean Sea, travel on, 2. 

Menendez, Pedro, founds St. Augustine, 21, 
124; massacres the Huguenots, 22 n. 

Mercer, Hugh, death of, 295, 

" Merrimac," and "Columbia," 578; " Mon- 
itor " and, 579; destruction of, 580, 585. 

Mexico, declaration of war with, 489; Maxi- 
milian in, 652. 

Mexico, City of, capture of, 495. 

Michigan, admission of, 475; history and 
industries of, 476 «. 

Milan Decree, 429. 

Minnesota, admission of, 530; history and 
industrfes of, 530 «. 

Mint at Philadelphia, 402. 

Minuit, Peter, in New Netherland, 73; at 
Fort Christina, 81. 

Missionary Ridge, battle of, 610. 

Mississippi, admission of, 447; history and 
industries of, 448 «; secession of, 535; 
readmission of, 649. 

Mississippi River, discovery of, 14; La Salle 
at the mouth of, 131 ; jetties, 675. 

Missouri, admission of, 448; history and 
industries of, 451 n; remains in the 
Union, 563. 

Missouri Compromise, 448. 

Mobile Bay, battle of, 623. 

Mobile founded, 140. 

Modoc Indians, 103; in the Northwest, 658. 



448 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



"Monitor" and " Merrimac," 579; on the 
James, 585. 

Monmouth, battle of, 323-325. 

Monroe, James, Hfe of, 447 «; Minister to 
F'rance, 426; elected President, 444; in- 
auguration of, 445; re-elected President, 

445- 

Monroe Doctrine, 449. 

Montana, admission of, 6S9; history and 
industries of, 692 ;/. 

Montcalm, Marquis de, in command, 149; 
at Ticonderoga, 152; at Quebec, 154; 
death of, 157. 

Monterey, battle of, 491 ; capture of, 492. 

Montgomery, Ala., capital of the Confed- 
erate States, 536; government removed 
from, 554. 

Montgomery, Richard, death of, 270. 

Montreal, settlement of, 17, 122; expedition 
against, 136; surrender of, 158; capture 
of, 269. 

Monts, de, Pierre, founds Port Royal, 126. 

Morgan, Daniel, at Ninety-Six, 355; at 
Covvpens, 356. 

Mormons, account of, 495 n. 

Morrill Tariff' Act, 631. 

Morris, Gouverneur, in the Fe 'eral Con- 
vention, 381. 

Morris, Robert, financial agent, 353 ;/; in 
the Federal Convention, 381. 

Morristovvn, Washington at, 295, 340. 

Morse, S. F. B., inventor, 486 n. 

Morton, L. P., elected Vice-President, 688. 

Motley, J. L., historian, 743. 

Mott, Rebecca, burns her home, 358 n. 

Moultrie, William, at Port Royal, 336. 

Mound Builders, 98. 

Mount Hope, R. I., home of King Philip, 
117. 

Mount Vernon, 420 ;/. 

" Mugwumps" revolt, 682. 

Murfreesboro, battle of, 573. 

Musgrave, Sir Thomas, at Germantown, 300. 



Napoleon, treaty with, 418. 

Narragansett Indians, no, 114. 

Nashville, .battle of, 572; occupied by the 
Union army, 569; siege of, 621. 

National Bank, establishment of, 402; re- 
chartered, 444. 

National bank system, 634. 

National-Republican party formed, 464. 

Nationality of the colonists, 165. 

Naumkeag, settlement of, 57. 

Navigation Acts, 172. 

Navigation Laws, 202. 

Navy, in 18 1 2, 437; in 1 81 3, 438; on Lake j 
Erie, 439. I 



Nebraska, admission of, 653; history and 
industries of, 652 n. 

Negro labor in 1775, 168. 

Nevada, admission of, 635; history and in- 
dustries of, 634 «. 

New Albion named, 15. 

Newark, British army at, 289. 

Newbern, battle of, 596. 

New Brunswick, N. J., British army at, 289. 

New England, Church of England in, 179; 
Sunday in, 198; colonial commerce in, 
205; Union, 189. 

Newfoundland, fisheries of, 16; attempted 
settlement at, 26; settlement at, 75. 

New France named, 130. 

New Hampshire, colony of, 63; rejects 
amendment, 376. 

New Haven, settlement of, 65; before the 
Revolution, 166. 

New Jersey, claimed by the Dutch, ^y, 
colony of, 85; Church of England in, 
179; Puritan churches in, 180. 

New London, burning of, 353. 

New Mexico, conquest of, 492; made a ter- 
ritory, 502. 

New Netherland, colony of, 72; becomes 
New York, 74; schools in, 174. 

New Orleans, settlement of, 140; battle of, 
443; abandoned by the Confederates, 
574; riots in, 694. 

New parties in 1825, 463. 

Newport, Christopher, sails, 37. 

Newport, site of Old Stone Mill, 3 w; har- 
bor entered, 16; before the Revolution, 
166; seizure of, 291; attack upon, 328. 

New Somersetshire. See Maine. 

Newtown moves to Connecticut, 64. 

New York, harbor entered, 16; granted to 
the Duke of York, 74; before the Revo- 
lution, 166; Church of England in, 179 
Assembly, 187; the strategic point, 281 
evacuated, 285; rejects amendment, 376 
naval parade, 699. 

Nez Perces Indians, 103. 

Nicaragua Canal, 732. 

Ninety-Six, attack of, 342; threatened, 355; 
siege of, 358. 

Non-Conformists in England, 49. 

Non-Importation agreements, 201. 

Noii-Intercourse Act, 431 ; repealed, 433. 

Norfolk navy-yard, 578; evacuation of, 
585. 

Norsemen discover Greenland, 3. 

North, Lord, Prime Minister, 226; resig- 
nation of, 364. 

North America, discovery of, 9. 

Northampton, Mass., massacre at, 115. 

North Carolina, colony of, 90; and inde- 
pendence, 271; rejects amendment, 376; 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



449 



ratifies Constitution, 383; secession of, 

554. 
North Castle Ileighls, 285. 
North compared with South, 538-547. 
North Dakota, achiiission of, 689, 691 w. 
Northern Pacilic Railroad, 659. 
Northmen discover Creenland, 3. 
Northwest Passaj^e sought, 24, 25, 39, 40 n. 
Northwest Territory, 405, 
Norway, emigration from, 752. 
NuUihcation doctrine, 469. 



Oglethorpe, James, 92. 

O'Hara, Charles, 362. 

Ohio, admission of, 425; history and in- 
dustries of, 426 n. 

Ohio Company formed, 142. 

Oklahoma Territory, 689. 

Old South Church, 178, 222, 223. 

Old Stone Mill, 3 n. 

"Omnibus Bill," 501. 

"Open door,' the, 727. 

Orangeburg, capture of, 358. 

Orchard Knob, capture of, 611. 

Orders in Council, 429. 

Oregon, visited by Drake, 15; disputed 
ownership of, 485; admission of, 530; 
history and industries of, 531 n. 

Orinoco River, discovery t)f, 8«; explora- 
tion of, 27 n. 

Orleans, Island of, Cartier at, 17. 

Osgood, Samuel, Postmaster-General, 401. 

"Ostend Manifesto," 710. 

Oswald, Richard, British commissioner, 366. 

Otis, James, life of, 204 «; opposes Writs 
of Assistance, 209; opposes Stamp Act, 
211; foresees independence, 240. 



Pacific Coast, discovery of, 11 ; explora- 
tion of, 15. 

Pakenham, Sir Edward, 443. 

Palo Alto, battle of, 490. 

Palos, Columbus sails from, 7; returns to, 
8. 

Pan-American Congress, 690. 

Pan-American Exposition, 729. 

Panic of 1837,478; of 1873,664; of 1893, 
701. 

Paper Money, 375, 599. 

Paris, treaty of, 365-369. 

Parker, Sir Peter, seizes Newport, 291; at 
Savannah, 336. 

Parkman, Francis, historian, 743. 

Patents issued, 762. 

Patroon War, 486 n. 

Paulding, John, arrests Andre, 349 n. 

Paulus Hook, capture of, 331. 



Pawtucket, R, I,, cotton mills at, 458, 

Peabody, (George, philanthropist, 760. 

Peck, J. J., at Suffolk, 595. 

I'edrick, Jt)hn, warns people of Salem, 241. 

Pemberton, J. C, at Vicksburg, 608. 

Pendleton, (J, IL, candidate for Vice-Presi- 
dent, 636. 

" Pendleton Civil Service Bill," 679. 

Peninsular Campaign, 581-589. 

Penn, William, purchases Delaware, 82; 
proprietor of Pennsylvania, 95; forms 
" Frame of Government," 97. 

Pennsylvania, colony of, 95; University of, 
175; religious freedom in, 183; a proprie- 
tary colony, 186. 

Pensacola, seizure of, 446. 

People's parly formed, 698. 

Pepperell, Sir William, at Louisburg, 141. 

Pequot War, 108; treaty broken, 109; war 
general, no; results, 112. 

Percy, Lord, 246, 282. 

Perry, M. C, opens the ports of Japan, 527. 

Perry, O. H., on Lake Erie, 439. 

Perryville, battle of, 572. 

Petersburg, Cornwaliis at, 359; siege of, 
615, 616; evacuation of, 625'. 

Philadelphia, settlement at, 96; before the 
Revolution, 166; occupied by the British, 
299; British at, 317; evacuation of, 323; 
Federal Convention at, 380-382; the na- 
tional capital, 402; Centennial Exhibition 
at, 663. 

Philip IL, King of Spain, 21, 21 ;/. 

Philip of Pokanoket, 113. 

Philippine Islands, 715, 724;/; insurrection 
in, 724. 

Phillips, Wendell, orator, 518. 

Phips, Sir William, at Port Royal, 136. 

Phonograph, invention of, 762. 

Pickens, Andrew, partisan leader, 343. 

Pickering, Timothy, at Salem, 242; Post- 
master-General, 401, 409. 

Pickett's Charge at Gettysburg, 605. 

Pierce, Franklin, life of, 522 «; elected 
President, 506. 

Pigot, Sir Robert, at Bunker Hill, 255. 

Pilgrims, in Holland, 50; decide to leave 
Holland, 51; sail fur America, 52; occupa- 
tions at Leyden, 52 ;/; arrive at Plymouth, 

53. 
Pillow, G. J., at Belmont, 564; at Fort Don- 

elson, 568. 
Pinckney, C. C, envoy to France, 417; 

candidate for President, 432. 
Pinzon, the family aid Columbus, 7. 
Pitcairn, John, at Concord, 243. 
Pitt, William, Secretary of State, 150. 
Pittsburg, riots in, 673. 
Plantations in 1775, 169. 



450 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



Plymouth, Eng., Pilgrims sail from, 52. 
Plymouth, Mass., Pilgrims arrive at, 53; first 

winter at, 55. 
Plymouth Company, receives charter, ;^^; 

dissolved, 36. 
Pocahontas, and John Smith, 42; later life 

of, 43 n. 
Poe, E. A., poet, 741. 
Point Comfort, Va., named, 38. 
Pokanoket Indians, 113. 
Poland, emigration from, 752. 
Political scandals, 665. 
Polk, J. K., life of, 488 n; elected President, 

487. 
Polygamy, Anti, Act, 678. 
^ Pomeroy, Seth, at Bunker Hill, 256. 

Pope, John, at Island No. 10, 572; at second 

Bull Run, 590. 
Popham, George, forms settlement, 36. 
Popham, Sir John, 32. 
Popham Colony, 36. 
Population, of the colonies, 164, 200; in 

1790* 391; in 1825, 453; in 1900, 765; 

growth of, 764. 
Porter, Fitz-John, at Hanover Court House, 

585, 
Port Hudson, occupation of, 575; capture 

of, 608. 
Porto Rico, 13, 719, 723 n. 
Port Royal, N. S., founded, 126; capture of, 

136; second capture of, 139. 
Port Royal, S. C, settlement of, 88, 123; 

British at, 336; capture of, 596. 
Portsmouth, N. H., settlement of, 62; be- 
fore the Revolution, 166. 
Portsmouth, R. I., battle at, 328. 
Portugal, Columbus seeks help from, 7. 
Portuguese, explorations of, 5. 
Postage, cheaper, 680. 
Potomac, army of, established, 560. 
Powers, Hiram, sculptor, 747. 
Powhatan, Indian chief, 42. 
Presbyterian Church, 179. 
Prescott, Richard, capture of, 290 ;/. 
Prescott, William, at Breed's Hill, 253; at 

Bunker Hill, 256. 
Prescott, W. H., historian, 743. 
President of the United States, 387. 
Presidential electors, 387. 
Presidential Succession Act, 685. 
Preston, Capt., trial of, 217. 
Prevost, Augustine, at Brier Creek, 337. 
Price, Sterlmg, at Carthage, 564. 
Prideaux, John, death of, 154. 
Princeton, battle of, 293-295. 
Princeton College, 175. 
Printing before 1775, 176. 
Printing-press, establishment of, 5; cylinder, 

invention of, 762. 



Professions before 1775, 177. 

Prohibition, 761. 

Prohibition party formed, 682. 

Proprietary colonies, 186. 

Protective tariffs, 450, 459. 

Providence, settlement at, 66; before the 

Revolution, 166. 
Provincetown, Pilgrims arrive at, 53. 
Public schools, 1 74, 754. 
Pueblo Indians, 103. 
Pulaski, Count, death of, 339. 
Pullman boycott, 702. 
Punishments in the colonies, 188. 
Puritan churches in New England, 180. 
Puritans in England, 48; civil war of, 56. 
Putnam, Israel, at Bunker Hill, 256; in 

command, 267. 



Quakers in England, 94; in New England, 

182. 
Quebec, settlement of, 1.26; expedition 

against, 136, 139; battle of, 154-157; 

expedition against, 269. 
Quebec Act, 229. 
Queen Anne's War, 138-140. 
Queenstown Heights, battle of, 436. 
Quincy, Josiah, defends British soldiers, 218; 

address on the tea tax, 223. 



Races, difficulties between, 107. 

Railroads in the United States, 659. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, sends out a colony, 27; 
life of, 27 n. 

Randolph, E. J., a party leader, 403; At- 
torney-General, 401, 409. 

Randolph, Peyton, in the Continental Con- 
gress, 236, 263. 

Read, George, in the Federal Convention, 
381. 

Readmission of Southern States, 649. 

Reaping-machine, invention of, 762. 

Reciprocity, 693. 

Reconstruction, 645-649. 

Reformation, Protestant, 47. 

Rehoboth, Mass., massacre at, 1 15. 

Reid, Whitelaw, candidate for Vice-President, 
698. 

Religion in the United States, 757. 

Religious freedom, 183, 461, 758. 

Representatives, House of, 385. 

Republican party formed, 528. 

Resaca, battle of, 618. 

Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 490. 

Resources of the colonies, 169-173. 

Resumption of specie payment, 674. 

Revenue, surplus distributed, 474. 

Reynolds, J. F., death of, 603. 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



451 



Rhode Island, colony of, 67; schools in, 
174; religious freedom in, 183; a charter 
colony, 1 85; General Assembly of, 187; 
and the Continental Congress, 232; de- 
clares independence, 272; rejects amend- 
ments, 376; ratifies the Constitution, 383. 

Kibault, Jolin, makes a settlement, 19, 123. 

" Richard, Bon Ilomme," and the *' Serapis," 

334. 

Richmond, burning of, 353; made Confed- 
erate capital, 554; army at, 556; fortifi- 
cations of, 561; panic at, 585; evacuation 
of, 625. 

Roanoke Inlet entered by Drake, 28. 

Roanoke Island, colony of, 27, 29; capture 
of, 596. 

Robinson, John, pastor at Leyden, 50. 

Roebling, John A., 682 n. 

Rogers, Randolph, sculptor, 747. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, 72S, 731, 731 n. 

Rosecrans, W. S., at Stone River, 573; at 
Chickamauga, 609. 

Ross, Betsey, 311 n. 

Ross, Robert, in Maryland, 441. 

Royal colonies, 186. 

Rush, Richard, candidate for Vice-President, 

Russia, emigration from, 752. 
Rutland, Burgoyne's army at, 31 1. 
Rutledge, John, in the Continental Con- 
gress, 236; in the Federal Convention, 

3«i. 
Ryswick, treaty of, 137. 

Sagas, Norse stories, 3, 4. 

St. Augustine, settlement at, 21, 124; capture 

of, 596. 
St. Clair, Arthur, and the Indians, 406. 
St. Johns, Que., capture of, 269. 
St. Lawrence, fisheries of, 16; exploration 

of, 17. 
St. Leger, Barry, in the Mohawk Valley, 

304. 

St. Mary's, Md,, settlement at, 77; before 
the Revolution, 166. 

St. Simon, Count de, joins Lafayette, 360. 

Salem, first church in, 59 «; before the Rev- 
olution, 166; witchcraft in, 184; armed 
resistance at, 242. 

vSamoa, 725. 

Samoset welcomes the English, 1 1 3 «. 

Sampson, Wilham T., 716. 

San I*'rancisco, cajiture of, 492. 

San Juan Island, (Hspute concerning, 657. 

Santa Anna, 491, 494. 

Saratoga, surrender at, 310. 

Savage's Station, battle of, 588. 

Savaimah, settlement at, 93; capture of, 
336; siege of, 338; capture of, 622. 



"Savannah," voyage of, 456. 

" Scalawags," 668. 

Schenectady, N. Y., massacre at, 136. 

Schley, Winfield S., 716. 

Schotield, J. M., at Franklin, 621 ; at Golds- 
boro, 627. 

Schools, public, 174, 754. 

Schuyler, P. J., at Ticonderoga, 302. 

Scotch-Irish immigrants, 165. 

Scott, Winfield, life of, 492 «; at Chippewa, 
440; at Vera Cruz, 493; at Puebia, 49*4; 
candidate for President, 506; in com- 
mand, 558; retires from the army, 560. 

Scrooby, first home of the Pilgrims, 50. 

Seamen, American, 430. 

" Search and Impressment," 430. 

Secession, 535. 

Sedition laws, 419. 

Seminole Indians in Florida, 446. 

Senate of the United States, 385; equal 
representation in, 514. 

Separatists in England, 49. 

" Serapis," fight with, 334. 

Servants in the colonies, 168. 

Settlements before the Revolution, 166. 

Sevier, John, at King's Mountain, 345. 

Seward, W. H., life of, 505 n. 

Sewing machines, invention of, 762. 

Seymour, Horatio, 654. 

Shackamaxon, treaty of, 96 n. 

'* Shannon " and " Chesapeake," 438. 

Shelby, Isaac, at King's Mountain, 345. 

Shenandoah Valley, Johnston in, 559; Banks 
in, 582. 

Sheridan, P. IL, life of, 619 «; at Stone 
River, 573; at Winchester, 617; at Five 
Forks, 624. 

Sherman, John, Secretary of the Treasury, 
674. 

Shermain Silver Bill, 691; repealed, 701. 

Sherman, Roger, in the Continental Con- 
gress, 236; in the P'ederal Convention, 
3«i. 

Sherman, W. T., life of, 626 «; at Lookout 
Mountain, 61 1; at Knoxville, 612; in 
command, 613; in Georgia, 618, 620; 
marches to the sea, 622; in the Carolinas, 
627. 

Shiloh, battle of, 570. 

Ship Island, Farragut at, 574. 

Shirley, Wilham, at Niagara, 148. 

Shoshone Indians, 103, 

Sillinian, Benjamin, chemist, 744. 

Silver (luestion, 691, 706. 

Simms, W. G., writings of, 740. 

Sioux Indians in the Northwest, 658. 

Skelton, John, pastor at Salem, 59. 

Slater, J. F., philanthropist, 760. 

Slavery agitation, 507-529. 



452 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



Slavery and the cotton-gin, 510. 

Slavery, effect upon the South, 512. 

Slavery, North and South, 507. 

Slavery question in 1820, 447, 

Slave trade, 508. 

Slaves, in the colonies, 168; in 1789, 394; 
condition of, 511 ; colonization of, 513. 

Slidell, John, capture of, 576. 

Sloat, J. D., in California, 492. 

Smith, Francis, at Concord, 243. 

Smith, John, member of the Virginia Com- 
pany, 32; "Generall Historic," ^3'^^? sails 
for Virginia, ^y ; early life of, 39 «; trial 
of, 40; seeks Northwest passage, 40 w; 
and Pocahontas, 42. 

Somers, Sir George, admiral, 43. 

Sons of Liberty, 211. 

Soto, Ferdinand de, discoveries of, 14, 

South, the, and the election of Lincoln, 
534; compared with the North, 538-547; 
after the war, 642; industries of, 748, 749. 

South America, discovery of, 8 «. 

Southampton, Eng., Pilgrims at, 52. 

South Carolina, colony of, 90; Puritan 
churches in, 180; and independence, 273; 
secession of, 535. 

South Dakota, admission of, 689, 691 «. 

South Mountain, battle of, 591. 

South Sea named, 1 1. 

Southern Pacific railroad, 659. 

Sower, Christopher, printer, 202 u. 

Sparks, Jared, historian, 743. 

Specie circular, 478. 

Specie payments, resumption of, 674. 

" Spoils system," 677. 

Spokane Indians, 103. 

Springfield, Mass., massacre at, 115. 

Springfield, N. J., Imttle of, 332. 

"Squatter sovereignty," 522. 

Stamp Act passed, 2lo; Congress, 212; 
repealed, 214. 

Standard time, 681. 

Stand ish, Myles, captain at Plymouth, 55. 

Stanton, E. M., Secretary of War, 651. 

" Star Spangled Banner," 441 «. 

Stark, John, in command, 256; at Benning- 
ton, 303; at Springfield, 332. 

Stars and Stripes first made, 311. 

Stephens, Alexander, life of, 537 «; elected 
Vice-President of the Confederate States, 
536; foresight of, 538. 

Steuben, Baron von, 321. 

Stevenson, A. E., elected Vice-President, 698; 
<lefeated, 728. 

Stillwater, battle of, 307. 

Stirling, Lord, at New York, 282. 

Stockton, R. F., in California, 492. 

Stone, C. P., at Ball's Bluff, 562. 

Stone River, battle of, 573. 



Stony Point, garrisoned, 329; capture of, 

330- 
Story, W. W., sculptor, 747. 

Stowe, Mrs. H. B., novelist, 520. 

Strikes, 673, 684, 701, 702. 

Stringham, S. H., at Hatteras Inlet, 596. 

Stuart, Gilbert, artist, 746. 

Stuyvesant, Peter, governor of New Nether- 
land, 73. 

Sub-Treasury, 479. 

Suffolk, siege of, 595. 

Suffrage question, 770. 

Sullivan, John, at I>ong Island, 284; joins 
Washington, 290; at Newport, 328; and 
the Indians, 333. 

Sumner, Charles, life of, 526 «; attack upon, 
526. 

Sumner, E. V., at Fair Oaks, 587. 

Sumter, Thomas, at Hanging Rock, 343; 
in the Carolinas, 358. 

Superstition in the colonies, 184. 

Supreme moment in American history, 155. 

Surplus revenue distributed, 474. 

Swamp fight, 1 16. 

Swansea, massacre at, 1 1 5. 

Sweden, emigration froni, 752. 

Switzerland, emigration from, 457, 752. 

Taft, William IL, 724. 

Talleyrand, 417. 

Tamjm Bay, de Soto land at, 14. 

Tariff, of 1828, 465; of 1832,470; of 1883, 
68 1 ; of 1S90, 692; of 1894 and 1897, 707- 

" Tariff of Abominations," 465. 

Tariff question, 770. 

Tariff reform, 692. 

Tariffs, 451. 

Tarleton, Sir Bannastre, in the Carolinas, 
345; at Cowpens, 356; and Col. Wash- 
ington, 356 «. 

Tarrytown, arrest of Andre at, 349. 

Taunton, Mass., massacre at, 115. 

Taxation, American theory of, 207; English 
theory of, 208. 

Taylor, Richard, surrender of, 627. 

Taylor, Zachary, life of, 500 ti ; in Mexico, 
489; elected President, 499; death of, 

504- 
Tecumseh forms confederacy, 434. 
Telegraph, magnetic, 486 «. 
Telephone, invention of, 762. 
Temperance, societies, 505; in the United 

States, 761; question, 770. 
Tennessee, admission of, 402; history and 

industries of, 406;/; secession of, 554; 

read mission of, 649. 
'• Tenure of Offfce Act," 650. 
Territorial growth, 763. 
Territory in 1825, 454. 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



453 



Terry, A. H,, at Goldsboro, 627, 

Texas, Republic of, 483; annexation of, 484; 
boundary dispute concerning, 488; history 
and industries of, 489 «; secession of, 535 ; 
read mission of, 649. 

Thames, battle of the, 439. 

Thirteenth Amendment, 644. 

Thomas, G. H., at Stoije River, 573; at 
Chickamauga, 609; at Orchard Knob 
61 1 ; at Nashville, 621. 

Thomas, John, in command, 247. 

Thoreau, II, 1)., the recluse, 742. 

Thurman, A. G., candidate for Vice-Presi- 
dent, 688. 

Tilden, S. [., candidate for President, 669, 

Tippecanoe, battle of, 434. 

"Tippecanoe and Tyler too," 480. 

Tobacco first carried to England, 29 n. 

Tompkins, Daniel D., elected Vice-Presi- 
dent, 444; re-elected, 445. 

Topeka Constitution, 524, 

" To the victor l>elong the spoils," 467. 

Town meetings in New England, 178. 

Travel, by land, 455; by water, 456. 

Travel in the colonies, 199. 

Treaty, of 1763, 158-162; of 1783, 367; of 
1814,443; of 1848,497. 

Trent affair, the, 576. 

Trenton, Biitish army at, 289; capture of, 292, 

Tripoli, war with, 428. 

Trumbull, John, the artist, 746. 

Tyler, John, life of, 483 n; elected Vice- 
President, 480; becomes President, 481; 
and the Texas question, 484. 

" Uncle Tom's Cabin," 520. 

Union of Colonies, Albany, 144. 

Union Pacific Railroad, 659. 

United Colonies of New England, 112. 

United States, geography of, 163; Bank, 
472; internal revenue, 632; bonds, 633; 
natural advantages of, 767; national ad- 
vantages of, 768. 

" United States " and the " Macedonian," 

437- 
Utah, made a territory, 502; admission of, 

704; history and industries of, 704 //. 
Utah Indians, 103. 
Utrecht, treaty of, 139. 

Valley Forge, American winter quarters at, 

318. 
Van Buren, Martin, life of, 477 n\ elected 

Vice-President, 471; elected Pres-ident, 

476; not re-elected, 480. 
Vanderlyn, John, artist, 746. 
Van Twiller, Walter, 73. 
Van Wart, Isaac, arrests Andre, 349 n. 
Venezuela boundary dispute, 703. 



Venice, trade with the East, 5. 

Vera Cruz, siege of, 493. 

Vergennes' prophecy, 161. 

Vermont, admission of, 402; history and in- 
dustries of, 404 n. 

Veri)lanck's Point, garrisoned, 329. 

Verrazano, (jiovanni de, explores the Atlan- 
tic Coast, 16, 121. 

Vespucci, Amerigo, gives name to America, 
10. 

" Vesuvius " on the Mississippi, 456. 

Vicksburg, fortified, 575; capture of, 608. 

Vincennes, settlement at, 140; capture of, 

327. 

Vinland, discovery of, 4, 

Virginia named, 27; company formed, 32; 
colonists, character of, 39; first days of, 
40; first summer, 41; abandoned, 44; 
burgesses first summoned, 46; Church of 
England in, 179; House of Burgesses, 
187; takes steps toward indei^endence, 
274; British raids in, 329; calls a con- 
vention, 378; resolutions of 1798, 420; 
negro insurrection in, 515; secession of, 
554; Confederate army in, 556; readmis- 
sion of, 649. 

Walla Walla Indians, 103. 

Wallace, Lew, at Shiloh, 570 n. 

Waltham, cotton mills at, 458. 

War, of 1812,433-443; with Mexico, 488- 

497; with Spain, 708-723. 
Ward, Artemas, in commanti, 247, 266. 
Warner, Seth, at Crown Point, 252. 
Warren, Joseph, life of, 261 n\ speaker of 

the Massachusetts House, 234; death of, 

259- 

Warren, Sir Peter, at Louisl)urg, 141. 

Washington, George, life of, 400//; early 
life of, 142 n; at Fort Du Quesne, 143; 
retreat of, 147; in Continental Congress, 
236, 263; Commander-in-chief, 264; at 
Cambridge, 265; at Dorchester Heights, 
268; at New York, 283; retreats from 
Brooklyn, 284; at North Castle Heights, 
285; crosses the Hudson, 286; in New 
Jersey, 287; crosses the Delaware, 289s 
captures Trenton, 292; at Princeton, 293- 
295; at Morristown, 295; ilefends Phila- 
delphia, 297; at Brand vwine, 298; at 
Valley Forge, 319; at Monmouth, 324; 
plans to capture Arnold, 352; plans to 
crush Cornwallis, 360; at ^'orktovvn, 362; 
in the Federal Convention, 380; elected 
I'resident, 400; inauguration of, 401 n\ 
re-elected President, 409; third terint4i 3; 
farewell address, 414; Commander-in- 
chief, 418; death of, 421 ; and slavery, 
509; State papers of, 737. 



454 



INDEX. 

(The numbers refer to paragraphs, not to pages.) 



Washington, admission of, 689; history and 
industries of, 694 «. 

Washington, national capital, 402; Capitol 
burned, 441; Union army at, 556; pro- 
tection of, 582; panic in, 586; army re- 
viewed at, 639; treaty of, 655. 

Washingtonian Temperance Society, 761. 

" Wasp " and "Frolic," 437. 

Watertown moves to Connecticut, 64. 

Wayne, Anthony, at Stony Point, 330; life 
of, 330;?; and the Indians, 406. 

Weaver, J. B., candidate for President, 676, 
698. 

Webster, Daniel, life of, 469 «; and Ilayne, 
468; candidate for President, 476; death 
of, 504. 

Webster- Ashburton treaty, 482. 

Webster, Noah, author, 744. 

West, Benjamin, artist, 746. 

West, Sir Thomas, life of, 45 «; governor of 
Virginia, 43; arrives in Virginia, 45. 

West, the great, industries of, 751. 

West Indies, discovery of, 8; commerce 
with, 205. 

West Jersey, colony of, 84. 

West Point, Southern officers trained at, 

540- 
West Virginia, admission of, 635 ; history 

and industries of, 636 «. 
Wethersfield, settlement of, 64. 
Wheeler, W. A., elected Vice-President, 

669. 
Whig party named, 476. 
Whiskey Insurrection, 408. 
" Whiskey Ring," 665. 
White, H. L., candidate for President, 476. 
White, John, of Roanoke Island, 29. 
White, John, forms the Dorchester Company, 

57- 
White Oaks Swamp, battle of, 588. 
White Plains, battle of, 285. 
Whitney, Eli, invents the cotton-gin, 397. 
Whittier, J. G., poet, 741. 
" Wild Cat Banks," 477. 
Wilderness, battles of the, 614. 



Wilkes, Charles, captures Mason and Sli- 
dell, 576. 

William, Emperor, and the Northwest 
boundary, 657, 

William and Mary College, 175. 

Williams, David, captures Andre, 349 n. 

Williams, James, at King's Mountain, 345. 

Williams, Roger, at Providence, 66, i8i ; 
and the Narragansetts, 1 10, 

Williamsburg, before the Revolution, 166; 
Lafayette at, 360; battle of, 584. 

Wilmot proviso, 496. 

Wilson, Henry, elected Vice-President, 666. 

Wilson, James, in the Federal Convention, 381 . 

Wilson's Creek, battle of, 564. 

Winchester, battle of, 617. 

Windsor, settlement of, 64. 

Wingfield, Edward Maria, 32; sails for Vir- 
ginia, 37; in the Council, 39. 

Winthrop, John, life of, 60 «; governor of 
Massachusetts Bay, 60. 

Winthrop, R. C, at Yorktown, 361 n. 

Wisconsin, admission of, 496; history and 
industries of, 498 «. 

Witchcraft in the colonies, 184. 

Witherspoon, John, in the Continental Con- 
gress, 236. 

Wolfe, James, at Quebec, 154-157; death of, 
157; on the river, 157 «. 

World as known in the fifteenth century, I. 

World's Columbian Exposition, 699. 

Writs of Assistance, 209. 

Wyoming, admission of, 689; history and 
industries of, 695 ti. 

Wyoming, Penn., Indian massacre at, 325. 

Yakama Indians, 103, 
Yale College, 175. 
Yankee, origin of the term, 244 «. 
Yeardsley, George, governor of Virginia, 46. 
Yorktown, siege of, 361; anniversary of, 
361 «; surrender at, 362; evacuation of, 

ZuNi Indians, 103. 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



Abercrombie, (ab'er-krum- 

bT). 
Acadia, (a-ku'di-a). 
Aix-la-Chapelle, (aks-lah- 

sha-peK). 
Albemarle, (al'be-marle). 
Alleghany , (are-ga-ny). 
ft-ltamaha, (arta-ma-hah'). 
Amherst, (am'urst). 
Andre, (an'dra or au'dii). 
Andros, (an'dros). 
Annapolis, (an-nap'o-lis). 
Apaches, (a-pah'chaz). 
Appalaches, (ap-a-la'chez). 
Appalachian, (ap-a-la'chi- 

an). 
Arbuthnot, (ar'biith-not). 
Arkansas, (ar'kan-saw). 
Astoria, (as-to'ri-a). 

Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 

(vas'co nun'yath de Bal- 

bo'a). 
Barbadoes, (bar-ba'doz). 
Bartolomeo, (bar-tol-6-ma'5). 
Berkeley, (berk'li). 
Bermudas, (ber-mu'daz). 
Beverly, (bev'er-ly). 
Bon Homme Bichard, (bun- 

hum-rich'ard). 
Boscawen, (bos'ka-wen). 
Bowdoin, (bo'd'n). 
Braddock, (brad'dok). 
Breton, (bret'on). 
Brewster, (hroo'ster). 
Buena Vista, (bwa'nah-ves' 

tah). 
Burgesses, (bur'ges-ses). 
Burgoyne, (bur-goyn'). 

Cabal, (ka-bal'). 
Calvert, (kal'vert). 
Campbell, (kam'el or kam' 

bel). 
Canoes, (ka-nooz'). 



Cape Breton, (cape bret'on). 
Carteret, (kar'ter-et). 
Cartier, (kar-te-a'). 
Champe, John, (John 

champ). 
Champlain, (sham-plain'). 
Charlotte, (shar'lot). 
Chavagnae, (sha-van-yak'). 
Chickahominy, (chik-a-hom' 

i-ny). 
Chihuahua, (che-wah'wah). 
Clement, (klem'ent). 
Coahuila, (ko-ah-we'la). 
Coligny, (ko-len'ye). 
Colonial, (ko-lo'-ni-al). 
Comfort, Point, (point kum' 

fort). 
Conant, (ko'nant). 
Constantinople, (con-stan-ti- 

no'ple). 
Cornelius, (kor-nel'yus). 
Corpus Christi, (kor'pus 

kris'ti). 
Craddock, (krad'dok). 
Creeks, (kreks). 
Croix, (kroy). 
Cuttyhunk, (cutty-hunk'). 

De Grasse, (deh-gras'). 
De La Place, (deh lah plas'). 
Delaware, (dera-ware). 
Delft-haven, (delft-ha'ven). 
D'Estaing, (des-tan'). 
Diaz, (de'az). 
D'Iberville, (de-ber-vel'). 
Dorchester, (dor'ches-ter). 
D'Orvilliers, (dor-ve'ye-a'). 
Du Quesne, (du-kane'). 

Eh, (e'li). 

Endicott, (en'di-kot). 
Episcopal, (e-pTs 'co-pal). 
Ericson, (er1k-sen). 

Faneuil, (fan'al). 



Frelinghuysen, (fre'ling-hl- 

zen). 
Frobisher, (fro'bish-er). 
Frolic, (frol'ik). 

Genoa, (jen'o-a). 
Gerry, (ger'ry, not jer'ry). 
Girard, (jT-rard'). 
Gorges, (gor'jez). 
Gosnold, (gos'nold). 
Gourgues, (goorg). 
Groton, (gro'ton). 
Guadalupe, (gwah-dah- 

loop'). 
Guanahani, (gwah-nah-hah'- 

ne). 
Guilford, (gil'ford). 
Gustavus, (giis-tah'-vus). 

Hakluyt, (hak'loot). 
Harlem, (har'lem). 
Heister, (hls'ter). 
Henrietta Maria, (hen-ri- 

et'a ma-ri'a). 
Hesse-Cassel, (hes'kas'el). 
Hessian, (hesh'an). 
Hidalgo, (e-dal'gr)). 
Higginson, (lug'gtn-son). 
Hobkirk, (hol/kirk). 
Hochelaga, (hok-a-lah'gah), 
Hutchinson, Aiuie, (ann 

hutch'in-son). 
Huguenot, (hu'ge-not). 

Illinois, (Tl-T-noy'). 
Iroquois, (ii-o-quoi'). 



Joliet, (zho-lya'). 

Knyphausen, 

zen). 



(knip'how- 



Lafayette, (lah-fa-yet'). 
La Salle, (lah sal'). 
Laudoraiiere,(lo'don'ne-air'). 



456 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



lAwrens, (lau'renz). 
Leger, (lej'er). 
Leslie, (lez'li). 
Leyden, (ll'-dn). 
Los Angeles, (los an'je-les). 
Loudon, (low'don). 
Louis, (loo'i). 
Louisburg, (lools-burg). 
Louisiana, (loo-e-zi-an'a). 

MacDonough, (mac-don'o). 
Magellan, (ma-jel'lan). 
Marquette, (mar-ket')- 
Massacre, (mas'sa-ker). 
Massasoit, (mas'sa-soit'). 
Mecklenburg, (niek'len- 

burg). 
Menendez, (ma-nen'deth). 
Miami, (ml am'i). 
Milan, (miran). 
Minuit, Peter, (pe'ter min' 

u-it). 
Miquelon, (me-ke-16n')- 
Mississippi, (mis-T-sip'T). 
Monongahela, (mo-non-gah- 

he'lah). 
Monsieur, (nio-ser'). 
Montcalm, (mont-kahm'). 
Moultrie, (mourtry). 

Nassau, (nas'sau). 
Naumkeag, (naum'keg). 
Netherlander s, (neth'er-lan- 

ders). 
Newcastle, (nu'casl). 
Nez Perces, (na-par-sa'). 
Niagara, (ni-ag'ah-rah). 
Nueces, (nwa'ses). 
Nuisance, (nu'sance). 
Nullification, (nul-i-fi-ca' 

shun). 

Oglethorpe, (6'gl-thorp), 
Orleans, (or'le-anz). 

Palos, (pah-los'). 
Parliament, (par'lT-ment). 
Pawtucket, (paw-tuck'et). 



I Pedro, (pe'dro). 
Peekskill, (pek'skil). 
Pequot, (pe'qwot). 
Pierce, Franklin, (frank'lin 

pers). 
Pierre, (pe-air'). 
Pierre de Monte, (pe-air' de 

mon'). 
Piscataqua, (pis-kat'ah-qwa). 
Pitcairn, (pTt'-kairn). 
Pocahontas, (p5-kah-h6n' 

tas). 
Pokanokets, (po ka-no'kets). 
Pomeroy, (pum'e-roi). 
Ponce de Leon, (p5n'tha 

da la-5n'). 
Popham, (pop'ham). 
Powhatan, (pou'ha-tan'). 
Prevost, (pre-v6'). 
Prideaux, (prid'o). 
Provincial, (pro-vin'shal). 
Prussia, (prush'ya). 
Pueblos, (pweb'loz). 
Pulaski, (pu-las'ki). 

Quebec, (que-bec'). 
Queen Anne, (queen ann). 
Quinnipiack, (kwin-nip'i-ak)- 

Raleigh, (raw'li). 
Randolph, (ran'dolf). 
Ratclifife, (rat'klif). 
Rehoboth, (re-ho'both). 
Ribault, (re'b5). 
Rio Grande, (re'o-gran'da). 
Roanoke, (ro-a-nok'). 
Rocheblave, (rosh'blave). 
Rotch, (rotch). 
Ryswick, (riz'wTk). 

Saint Croix, (saint croy). 
Saint Pierre, (san pe-air'). 
Samoset, (sam'6-set). 
Santa Pe, (san-tah-fa'). 
Santiago, (san-te-ah'go). 
Schuyler, (skT'ler). 
Schuylkill, (skoorkil). 
Scrooby, (skroo'by). 



Seekonk, (see'konk). 
Serapis, (se-ra'pis). 
Sevier, (se-ver'). 
Shackamaxon, (shak-a-max' 

on). 
Shoshones, (sho-sho'nez). 
Sioux, (soo). 
Somers, George, (Jorge sum' 

erz). 
Somersetshire, (sum'er-set- 

sher or shire). 
Sowams, (so'waniz). 
Specie, (spe'she). 
Spokanes, (spo-kanes')- 
Stephens, (ste'venz). 
Stuyvesant, (sti've-sant). 
Swansea, (swon'se). 
Sweden, (swe'den). 

Taunton, (taun'ton) (au, as 

in aunt). 
Ticonderoga, (ti-c6n-dcr-6*" 

ga). 
Tories, (t5'riz). 

Utrecht, (u'trekt). 

Vera Cruz, (va'rah krooz). 
Vergennes, (ver-zhen'). 
Verplanck, (ver'plangk). 
Verrazano, (ver-raht-sah'no). 
Vespucci, (ves-poo'che). 
Vincennes, (vTn-sen'). 
Von Heister, (von-his'ter). 

Wabash, (wah'bash). 
Wampanoags, (w6m-pah-no' 

agz). 
Ward, Artemas, (ar'te-mas 

ward). 
Westmoreland, (west'mor 

land). 
Wigwam, (wig'wom). 
W^yoming, (wi'5-ming). 

Yakamas, (yak'a-mahs). 

Zunis, (zoo'nyez). 



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